title: Chemical warfare agents: estimating oral reference doses.
abstract: Health risk assessments for sites contaminated with chemical warfare agents require a comparison of the potential levels of exposure with a characterization of the toxic potency of each chemical. For noncancer health effects, toxic potency is expressed in terms of Reference Doses (RfD). A RfD is a daily exposure level or dose (usually expressed in units of milligrams of chemical per kilogram body weight per day) for the human population, including sensitive subpopulations, that is likely to be without an appreciable risk of deleterious effects. A daily exposure at or below the RfD is not likely to be associated with health risks, but as the amount of chemical that an individual is exposed to increases above the RfD, the probability that an adverse effect will occur also increases. A RfD is derived by first examining the available human or animal toxicity data to identify a dose or exposure that corresponds to a no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) or a lowest-observed-adverse-effect level (LOAEL). The NOAEL is the exposure level at which there are no statistically or biologically significant increases in frequency or severity of adverse effects between the exposed population and its appropriate control. Effects may be produced at this level, but they are not considered to be adverse if they do not result in functional impairment or pathological lesions that affect the performance of the whole organism or which reduce an organism's ability to cope with additional challenge. The LOAEL is the lowest exposure level at which there are statistically or biologically significant increases in frequency or severity of adverse effects between the exposed population and its appropriate control. If only a LOAEL is identified by the toxicity data, a NOAEL is estimated by dividing the LOAEL by a factor no greater than 10. This extrapolation factor of 10 or less is termed the LOAEL-to-NOAEL Uncertainty Factor (UFL). The NOAEL is also adjusted by the application of other Uncertainty Factors, including (1) a UFH < or = 10 to ensure that the resulting RfD protects segments of the human population that may be more sensitive to the chemical than the average person; (2) a UFA < or = 10 to extrapolate from the experimental animal species to humans; (3) a UFS < or = 10 to extrapolate from an experimental subchronic exposure study to a potential chronic exposure; and (4) a UFD < or = 10 to ensure that the resulting RfD is protective for all possible adverse effects, particularly those that may not have been adequately evaluated in the available studies. A Modifying Factor (MF), based on a qualitative professional assessment of the data, may also be used to account for other factors (e.g., deficiencies in the critical study) that are not adequately covered by the standard Uncertainty Factors. 1. Agent HD (Sulfur Mustard). RfDe = 7 x 10(-6) mg kg-1 d-1. A LOAEL was identified in a two-generation reproductive toxicity study conducted in rats. A total uncertainty factor of 3000 was applied to account for protection of sensitive subpopulations (10), animal-to-human extrapolation (10), LOAEL-to-NOAEL extrapolation (3), and extrapolation from a subchronic to chronic exposure (10). A LOAEL-to-NOAEL UF of 3, instead of the default value of 10, was used because the critical effect (stomach lesions) was considered to be "mild" in severity and may have been enhanced by the vehicle used (sesame oil in which sulfur mustard is fully soluble) and the route of administration (gavage), which is more likely to result in localized irritant effects. The key study did identify a toxic effect that is consistent with the vesicant properties of sulfur mustard. In none of the other available studies was there any indication of a different effect occurring at a lower exposure level.
authors.affiliation: Life Sciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, TN 37831, USA.
authors.forename: D M
authors.initials: DM
authors.lastname: Opresko
authors.forename: R A
authors.initials: RA
authors.lastname: Young
authors.forename: R A
authors.initials: RA
authors.lastname: Faust
authors.forename: S S
authors.initials: SS
authors.lastname: Talmage
authors.forename: A P
authors.initials: AP
authors.lastname: Watson
authors.forename: R H
authors.initials: RH
authors.lastname: Ross
authors.forename: K A
authors.initials: KA
authors.lastname: Davidson
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: King
mesh_terms: D000393:Air Pollutants / Q000032:analysis; D000818:Animals; D020261:Arsenic Poisoning; D001152:Arsenicals; D002619:Chemical Warfare Agents / Q000737:chemistry / Q000506:poisoning* / Q000633:toxicity*; D002800:Cholinesterase Inhibitors / Q000506:poisoning / Q000633:toxicity; D003486:Cyanides / Q000506:poisoning* / Q000633:toxicity*; D004784:Environmental Monitoring; D006256:Hazardous Waste; D006801:Humans; D008466:Mechlorethamine / Q000506:poisoning / Q000633:toxicity; D009150:Mustard Compounds / Q000506:poisoning* / Q000633:toxicity*; D009151:Mustard Gas / Q000506:poisoning / Q000633:toxicity; D019055:No-Observed-Adverse-Effect Level; D051381:Rats; D012016:Reference Values; D018570:Risk Assessment; D014481:United States
chemical_list: D000393:Air Pollutants; D001152:Arsenicals; D002619:Chemical Warfare Agents; D002800:Cholinesterase Inhibitors; D003486:Cyanides; D006256:Hazardous Waste; D009150:Mustard Compounds; C035965:lewisite; D008466:Mechlorethamine; C014430:cyanogen chloride; D009151:Mustard Gas