title: Use of an intuitive telemanipulator system for remote trauma surgery: an experimental study.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Death from battlefield trauma occurs rapidly. Potentially salvageable casualties generally exsanguinate from truncal hemorrhage before operative intervention is possible. An intuitive telemanipulator system that would allow distant surgeons to remotely treat injured patients could improve the outcome from severe injuries.
  
  
  METHODS
  We evaluated a prototype, four-degree-of-freedom, telesurgery system that provides a surgeon with a stereoscopic video display of a remote operative field. Using dexterous robotic manipulators, surgical instruments at the remote site can be precisely controlled, enabling operative procedures to be performed remotely. Surgeons (n = 3) used the telesurgery system to perform organ excision, hemorrhage control, suturing, and knot tying on anesthetized swine. The ability to complete tasks, times required, technical quality, and subjective impressions were recorded.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Surgeons using the telesurgery system were able to close gastrotomies remotely, although times required were 2.7 times as long as those performed by conventional techniques (451 +/- 83 versus 1,235 +/- 165 seconds, p < 0.002). Cholecystectomies, hemorrhage control from liver lacerations, and enterotomy closures were successfully completed in all attempts. Force feedback and stereoscopic video display were important for achieving intuitive performance with the telesurgery system, although tasks were completed adequately in the absence of these sensory cues.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  We demonstrated the feasibility of performing standard surgical procedures remotely, with the operating surgeon linked to the distant field only by electronic cabling. Complex manipulations were possible, although the times required were much longer. The capabilities of the system used would not support resuscitative surgery. Telesurgery is unlikely to play a role in early trauma management, but may be a unique research tool for acquiring basic knowledge of operative surgery.
authors.affiliation: Department of Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, CA, USA.
authors.forename: J C
authors.initials: JC
authors.lastname: Bowersox
authors.forename: P R
authors.initials: PR
authors.lastname: Cordts
authors.forename: A J
authors.initials: AJ
authors.lastname: LaPorta
mesh_terms: D000007:Abdominal Injuries / Q000601:surgery; D000818:Animals; D002763:Cholecystectomy / Q000295:instrumentation; D004766:Enterostomy / Q000295:instrumentation; D004867:Equipment Design; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008099:Liver / Q000293:injuries / Q000601:surgery; D012371:Robotics; D013270:Stomach / Q000293:injuries / Q000601:surgery; D013523:Surgical Equipment; D013525:Surgical Instruments; D013536:Suture Techniques / Q000295:instrumentation; D013552:Swine; D017216:Telemedicine / Q000295:instrumentation*; D014947:Wounds and Injuries / Q000209:etiology / Q000601:surgery*