title: Zinc, iron, and magnesium status in athletes--influence on the regulation of exercise-induced stress and immune function.
abstract: Intense physical exercise has been shown to be associated with immunosuppression and increased rate of infection. The immunosuppressive effect of exhaustive exercise has been attributed to a reduced helper/suppressor T-cell ratio, low salivary levels of immunoglobulin-A, decreased lymphocyte proliferative response and natural killer cell activity, and elevation of stress hormones. Yet some athletes can withstand intense training periods without health problems while others are prone to infections. Thus it has been postulated that other factors may interfere with immunoregulation. The notion that macro- and micronutrients are involved in the regulation of immunological processes and the ability to cope with muscular and systemic exercise stress has been gaining attention. Particularly trace elements have been shown to be related to cell mediated and humoral immunity such as NK-cell activity, T- and B-cell functions, and cytokine release. Many investigations have reported decreased concentrations of trace elements in blood and tissues after training and competition. However, the magnitude of losses is highly dependent on the type and intensity of exercise, the individual regulatory state, and most important, nutrition. This paper reviews the data on zinc, iron, and magnesium status in athletes and summarizes the consequences of deficiencies in these trace elements regarding exercise tolerance and immune function. These elements were chosen since there is evidence they are related to exercise-induced stress and immune function.
authors.affiliation: Dept. of Rehabilitation, Prevention and Sports Medicine, Freiburg University Hospital, Germany.
authors.forename: D
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: König
authors.forename: C
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Weinstock
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Keul
authors.forename: H
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Northoff
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Berg
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D015444:Exercise; D006801:Humans; D007107:Immune System / Q000276:immunology*; D007501:Iron / Q000378:metabolism*; D008274:Magnesium / Q000378:metabolism*; D018482:Muscle, Skeletal / Q000503:physiopathology*; D009752:Nutritional Status; D013314:Stress, Mechanical; D015032:Zinc / Q000378:metabolism*
chemical_list: D007501:Iron; D008274:Magnesium; D015032:Zinc