title: [Contrast medium studies of the venous system].
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To give an overview of various diagnostic techniques and indications for phlebography in different parts of the body.
  
  
  METHODS
  Procedures of conventional phlebography of the lower and upper extremity and cavography are described and their indications in comparison to alternative techniques are discussed. The literature is reviewed with regard to specific advantages and disadvantages of the different methods.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Conventional phlebography with iodine contrast media is still considered to be the gold standard in many regards. The diagnosis of acute and chronic thrombotic disease, venous vascular occlusions, hemodynamic malfunctions and anatomic variants of the venous system can readily be established with contrast phlebography.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Main disadvantages of contrast studies of the venous system are radiation exposure and adverse effects of contrast media. Non-invasive methods such as ultrasound and MR-phlebography are becoming more and more popular and may replace venography. Other techniques such as CT-phlebography and the use of CO2 as contrast medium are under investigation. The latter can be indicated in the case of contraindications against iodine contrast media.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  When choosing diagnostic methods for the venous system, their sensitivity and specificity for specific diagnoses and vascular territories have to be balanced against the risks and disadvantages.
authors.affiliation: Institut für Radiologische Diagnostik, Klinikum Grosshadern, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München.
authors.forename: K
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Herrmann
authors.forename: T
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Waggershauser
authors.forename: H
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Bonél
authors.forename: C
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Glaser
authors.forename: H
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Sittek
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Reiser
mesh_terms: D003287:Contrast Media; D005121:Extremities / Q000098:blood supply / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging; D006801:Humans; D018810:Magnetic Resonance Angiography; D010690:Phlebography; D013927:Thrombosis / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging*; D014057:Tomography, X-Ray Computed; D014463:Ultrasonography; D014682:Vena Cava, Inferior / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging; D014684:Venae Cavae / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging
chemical_list: D003287:Contrast Media