title: Ceramide accumulation during oxidant renal tubular injury: mechanisms and potential consequences.
abstract: Ceramide is an important signaling molecule that is typically generated via sphingomyelinase (SMase)-mediated sphingomyelin (SM) hydrolysis. Although diverse forms of renal injury elicit ceramide accumulation, the molecular determinants of this change and its contribution to tissue damage are poorly defined. The present study uses iron (Fe/hydroxyquinoline)-mediated injury of cultured human proximal tubular (HK-2) cells to gain additional insights into these issues. A 4-h Fe exposure doubled ceramide levels in the absence of cell death. This was independent of de novo synthesis, since ceramide synthase inhibition (with fumonisin B1) had no effect. Oxidant stress directly suppressed, rather than stimulated, SMase activity by: (1) decreasing SMase levels; (2) depleting SMase-stimulating glutathione; and (3) increasing SM resistance to SMase attack. Fe suppressed cell sphingosine levels (3 to 4 times ceramide/sphingosine ratio increments), suggesting a possible ceramidase block. Fe did not directly affect HK-2 ceramidase levels. However, arachidonic acid (C20:4) accumulation, a consequence of oxidant-induced phospholipase A2 (PLA2) activation, markedly suppressed ceramidase and stimulated SMase activity. Exogenous C20:4, as well as PLA2 (in doses simulating Fe-induced deacylation) recapitulated Fe's ceramide-generating effect. Because C20:4 is directly cytotoxic, it was hypothesized that ceramide might offset some of C20:4's adverse effects. Supporting this possibility were the following: (1) C20:4 exacerbated Fe toxicity; (2) this was abrogated by ceramide treatment; and (3) ceramide blunted Fe-mediated cell death.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  (1) ceramide accumulation during acute cell injury can be an adaptive response to PLA2 activation/C20:4 generation; (2) C20:4-induced ceramidase inhibition, coupled with SMase stimulation, may trigger this result; and (3) these ceramide increments may exert a "biostat" function, helping to offset C20:4/PLA2- and "catalytic" iron-mediated tubular cell death.
authors.affiliation: Department of Medicine, University of Washington, and Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle 98109-6519, USA.
authors.forename: R A
authors.initials: RA
authors.lastname: Zager
authors.forename: D S
authors.initials: DS
authors.lastname: Conrad
authors.forename: K
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Burkhart
mesh_terms: D016718:Arachidonic Acid / Q000494:pharmacology; D016923:Cell Death / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology; D002478:Cells, Cultured; D002518:Ceramides / Q000096:biosynthesis*; D002851:Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid; D004305:Dose-Response Relationship, Drug; D005296:Ferrous Compounds; D006801:Humans; D006868:Hydrolysis / Q000187:drug effects; D006912:Hydroxyquinolines / Q000494:pharmacology; D007501:Iron / Q000378:metabolism*; D007684:Kidney Tubules / Q000166:cytology / Q000187:drug effects / Q000378:metabolism*; D016877:Oxidants; D018384:Oxidative Stress / Q000187:drug effects; D010088:Oxidoreductases / Q000037:antagonists & inhibitors; D010741:Phospholipases A / Q000494:pharmacology; D054467:Phospholipases A2; D000644:Quaternary Ammonium Compounds; D013050:Spectrometry, Fluorescence; D013108:Sphingomyelin Phosphodiesterase / Q000096:biosynthesis*; D013110:Sphingosine / Q000096:biosynthesis*
chemical_list: D002518:Ceramides; D005296:Ferrous Compounds; D006912:Hydroxyquinolines; D016877:Oxidants; D000644:Quaternary Ammonium Compounds; D016718:Arachidonic Acid; C038178:ammonium ferrous sulfate; D007501:Iron; D010088:Oxidoreductases; C108138:dihydroceramide desaturase; D010741:Phospholipases A; D054467:Phospholipases A2; D013108:Sphingomyelin Phosphodiesterase; D013110:Sphingosine