title: Antibiotic-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. Implications for medical practice.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To review the definition and prevalence of antibiotic-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae, its links with antibiotic prescribing, data on antibiotic prescribing and prescribing appropriateness, and evidence-based treatment guidelines for common respiratory tract syndromes.
  
  
  METHODS
  Primary studies consist of cross-sectional surveys and case-control studies. Treatment guidelines are based on clinical trials, meta-analyses, and cohort studies. Study designs were appropriate for the specific study questions.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The increasing prevalence of penicillin-resistant S pneumoniae is concurrent with increasing antibiotic prescribing. Individual patients show a twofold to ninefold increase in nasopharyngeal carriage of resistant bacteria or invasion with resistant bacteria (among those who have received antibiotics in the preceding 3 months). Cross-sectional data as well as data from medicaid and drug databases attest to overprescribing of antibiotics for respiratory tract infections. Physician surveys and focus groups blame this on parental pressure for antibiotic prescriptions. However, parents in focus groups and surveys deny they pressure their physicians and indicate their main purpose for office visits is to obtain a diagnosis and to seek reassurance that their children are not seriously ill. Evidence-based guidelines suggest treatment strategies that would reduce antibiotic prescribing.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The few antibiotics that can be used with resistant organisms are expensive and are increasingly being needed. To control the rise of antibiotic resistance, it is important to limit antibiotic overprescribing.
authors.affiliation: Department of Pediatrics, University of Toronto.
authors.forename: E E
authors.initials: EE
authors.lastname: Wang
authors.forename: J D
authors.initials: JD
authors.lastname: Kellner
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Arnold
mesh_terms: D000900:Anti-Bacterial Agents / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D002170:Canada / Q000453:epidemiology; D002648:Child; D011307:Drug Prescriptions / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D004352:Drug Resistance, Microbial; D004363:Drug Utilization; D019317:Evidence-Based Medicine; D019983:Guideline Adherence; D007722:Health Knowledge, Attitudes, Practice; D006801:Humans; D010290:Parents / Q000523:psychology; D011008:Pneumococcal Infections / Q000188:drug therapy* / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000382:microbiology*; D017410:Practice Guidelines as Topic; D010818:Practice Patterns, Physicians' / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D015995:Prevalence; D012107:Research Design; D012141:Respiratory Tract Infections / Q000188:drug therapy* / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000382:microbiology*; D012307:Risk Factors; D014481:United States / Q000453:epidemiology
chemical_list: D000900:Anti-Bacterial Agents