title: Orange fruit is more effective than are dark-green, leafy vegetables in increasing serum concentrations of retinol and beta-carotene in schoolchildren in Indonesia.
abstract: The objectives of this study were to quantify the effectiveness of dietary retinol sources, orange fruit, and dark-green, leafy vegetables in improving vitamin A status, and to test whether orange fruit is a better source of vitamin A and carotenoids than are leafy vegetables. Anemic schoolchildren aged 7-11 y (n = 238) in West Java, Indonesia, were randomly allocated to 1 of 4 groups to consume 2 complete meals/d, 6 d/wk, for 9 wk: 1) 556 retinol equivalents (RE)/d from retinol-rich food (n = 48); 2) 509 RE/d from fruit (n = 49); 3) 684 RE/d from dark-green, leafy vegetables and carrots (n = 45); and 4) 44 RE/d from low-retinol, low-carotene food (n = 46). Mean changes in serum retinol concentrations of the retinol-rich, fruit, vegetable, and low-retinol, low-carotene groups were 0.23 (95% CI: 0.18, 0.28), 0.12 (0.06, 0.18), 0.07 (0.03,0.11), and 0.00 (-0.06, 0.05) micromol/L, respectively. Mean changes in serum beta-carotene concentrations in the vegetable and fruit groups were 0.14 (0.12, 0.17) and 0.52 (0.43, 0.60) micromol/L, respectively. Until now, it has been assumed that 6 microg dietary beta-carotene is equivalent to 1 RE. On the basis of this study, however, the equivalent of 1 RE would be 12 microg beta-carotene (95% CI: 6 microg, 29 microg) for fruit and 26 microg beta-carotene (95% CI: 13 microg, 76 microg) for leafy vegetables and carrots. Thus, the apparent mean vitamin A activity of carotenoids in fruit and in leafy vegetables and carrots was 50% (95% CI: 21%, 100%) and 23% (95% CI: 8%, 46%) of that assumed, respectively. This has important implications for choosing strategies for controlling vitamin A deficiency. Research should be directed toward ways of improving bioavailability and bioconversion of dietary carotenoids, focusing on factors such as intestinal parasites, absorption inhibitors, and food matrixes.
authors.affiliation: Division of Human Nutrition and Epidemiology, Wageningen Agricultural University, Netherlands. sdepee@compuserve.com
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: de Pee
authors.forename: C E
authors.initials: CE
authors.lastname: West
authors.forename: D
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Permaesih
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Martuti
authors.lastname: Muhilal
authors.forename: J G
authors.initials: JG
authors.lastname: Hautvast
mesh_terms: D000886:Anthropometry; D001682:Biological Availability; D002648:Child; D004032:Diet; D005243:Feces / Q000469:parasitology; D005260:Female; D005638:Fruit / Q000737:chemistry; D006801:Humans; D007214:Indonesia; D008297:Male; D009753:Nutritive Value; D014675:Vegetables / Q000737:chemistry; D014801:Vitamin A / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000097:blood* / Q000493:pharmacokinetics; D019207:beta Carotene / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000097:blood* / Q000493:pharmacokinetics
chemical_list: D019207:beta Carotene; D014801:Vitamin A