title: Telerobotic surgery: applications on human patients and training with virtual reality.
abstract: This paper deals with the developed researches and applications on telerobotic surgery, devoted to human patients and with training by virtual reality. The researches have been developed in cooperation between Telerobotics Laboratory, Department of Mechanics, Politecnico di Milano, Italy, and Automation and Control Section, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, USA. The researches carried to a telesurgery robotic operation on a dummy on 7th July 1993, by means of satellites communications, to a prostatic biopsy on a human patient on 1st September 1995 with optical fibers, to results on time delay effects, to results on virtual reality applications for training on laparoscopy and surgery. The search implied time delay when the control input originated in Politecnico di Milano, Italy. The results were satisfactory, but also pointed out the need for specific new control transformations to ease the operator's or surgeon's visual/mental workload for hand-eye coordination. In the same research, dummy force commands from JPL to Milan were sent, and were echoed immediately back to JPL, measuring the round-trip time of the command signal. This, to some degree, simulates a contact force feedback situation. The results were very surprising; despite the fact that the ISDN calls are closed and "private" calls, the round-trip time exhibited great variations not only between calls but also within the same call. The results proved that telerobotics and telecontrol may be applied to surgery. Time latency variations are caused by features of communication network, of sending and receiving end computer software. The problem and its solution is also an architectural issue, and considerable improvements are possible. Virtual reality in the application of the research is a strong support to training on virtual objects and not on living beings.
authors.affiliation: Politecnico di Milano, Mechanical Department, Telerobotics Laboratory, Italy.
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Rovetta
authors.forename: A K
authors.initials: AK
authors.lastname: Bejczy
authors.forename: R
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Sala
mesh_terms: D013502:General Surgery / Q000193:education*; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D011471:Prostatic Neoplasms / Q000473:pathology; D019114:Remote Consultation / Q000379:methods*; D012371:Robotics; D013514:Surgical Procedures, Operative / Q000379:methods*; D014584:User-Computer Interface