title: Electrochemical sensors for polyionic macromolecules: development and applications in pharmaceutical research.
abstract: The first electrochemical sensors responsive towards polyionic heparin and protamine - two clinically important polymeric drugs - have been fully developed. The response mechanism of these sensors has been completely elucidated. As well as their significance in measuring blood heparin levels in clinically relevant concentration ranges, these polyion sensors could also find broad applications in pharmaceutical research, such as in the study of the binding events between heparin (or protamine) and other polycationic (or polyanionic) macromolecules. In addition, the sensors could be employed in the design of blood assays for a range of clinically important proteases and their inhibitors by utilizing either protamine or specially designed synthetic polypeptides as the substrates