title: Under-reporting of dietary intake by smoking and non-smoking subjects counselled for hypercholesterolaemia.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  We asked whether under-reporting of energy and cigarette smoking were associated with choice of foods and dietary composition amongst subjects with hypercholesterolaemia who had received dietary instruction to lower serum cholesterol.
  
  
  METHODS
  Dietary intake was assessed with a 4-day weighed food record in 205 women and 141 men, aged 20-73 years, being treated at a lipid clinic (tertiary referral centre). Under-reporting was assessed by calculating the ratio of energy intake (EI) to estimated basal metabolic rate (BMR).
  
  
  RESULTS
  The median EI/BMR was 1.1 for both men and women. EI/BMR did not differ according to smoking status, but correlated negatively with body mass index (Spearman's rho = -0.32, P = 0.0001). EI/BMR was inversely associated with energy-adjusted intakes of potatoes, vegetables, fish and low-fat meats, and positively associated with intakes of nuts, potato crisps, chocolate, sour and ice cream, oils, fatty meat spreads, cakes and biscuits, and with alcohol. Thus, low EI/BMR was associated with increased energy-adjusted intakes of protein, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, iron and cholesterol and with decreased intakes of sugar, poly- and monounsaturated fats and vitamin E (all P < 0.05). Cigarette smokers had a higher energy percentage (E%) from fat than non-smokers (29 +/- 6 vs. 26 +/- 6), a lower E% from carbohydrates (50 +/- 7 vs. 54 +/- 7) and a lower intake of vitamin C (11 +/- 7 vs. 16 +/- 9 mg MJ-1; all P = 0.0001), reflecting an increased intake of fatty meats and a decreased intake of skimmed cheese, fruit, rice and pasta, and cakes and biscuits (all P < 0.05).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Weighed dietary records reflected a 'healthier' intake of fat, protein, sugar, alcohol and some micronutrients amongst under-reporters, suggesting that self-reported dietary intakes are biased in patients with hypercholesterolaemia. Lack of responsiveness to the diet should not be assumed when dietary data are based on self-report. Smokers report a higher intake of fat and lower intake of vitamin C than non-smokers, even after dietary counsel, and may require more intensive interventions to optimize the diet.
authors.affiliation: Medical Department A, National Hospital, Oslo, Norway. serena.tonstad@ulleval.no
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Tonstad
authors.forename: C
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Gørbitz
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Sivertsen
authors.forename: L
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Ose
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D000428:Alcohol Drinking; D015992:Body Mass Index; D004040:Dietary Carbohydrates / Q000008:administration & dosage*; D004041:Dietary Fats / Q000008:administration & dosage*; D002149:Energy Intake; D005247:Feeding Behavior; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D006937:Hypercholesterolemia / Q000150:complications / Q000178:diet therapy*; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D012907:Smoking
chemical_list: D004040:Dietary Carbohydrates; D004041:Dietary Fats