title: Brain imaging technologies: how, what, when and why?
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Innovations in physics and computing technology over the past two decades have provided a powerful means of exploring the overall structure and function of the brain using a range of computerised brain imaging technologies (BITs). These technologies offer the means to elucidate the patterns of pathophysiology underlying mental illness. The aim of this paper is to explore the current status and some of the future directions in the application of BITs to psychiatry.
  
  
  METHODS
  Brain imaging technologies provide unambiguous measures of brain structure (computerised tomography and magnetic resonance imaging [MRI]) and also index complementary measures of when (electroencephalography, event related potentials, magnetoencephalography) and where (functional MRI, single photon emission computed tomography, positron emission tomography) aspects of brain activity occur.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The structural technologies are primarily used to exclude a biological cause in cases of a suspected psychiatric disorder. The functional technologies show considerable potential to delineate subgroups of patients (that may have different treatment outcomes), and evaluate objectively the effects of treatment on the brain as a system. What is seldom emphasised in the literature are the numerous inconsistencies, the lack of specificity of findings and the simplistic interpretation of much of the data.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Brain imaging technologies show considerable utility, but we are barely scratching the surface of this potential. Simplistic over-interpretation of results can be minimised by: replication of BIT findings, judicious combination of complementary methodologies, use of appropriate activation tasks, analysis with respect to large normative databases, control for performance, examining the data'beyond averaging', delineating clinical subtypes, exploring the severity of symptoms, specificity of findings and effects of treatment in the same patients. The technological innovation of BITs still far outstrips the sophistication of their use; it is essential that the meaning and mechanisms underlying BIT measures are always evaluated with respect to prevailing models of brain function across disciplines.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychological Medicine, Westmead Hospital, University of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
authors.forename: E
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Gordon
mesh_terms: D001921:Brain / Q000033:anatomy & histology / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging / Q000502:physiology; D004569:Electroencephalography; D006801:Humans; D008279:Magnetic Resonance Imaging; D014055:Tomography, Emission-Computed; D015899:Tomography, Emission-Computed, Single-Photon; D014057:Tomography, X-Ray Computed