title: Tensegrity and mechanoregulation: from skeleton to cytoskeleton.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To elucidate how mechanical stresses that are applied to the whole organism are transmitted to individual cells and transduced into a biochemical response.
  
  
  METHODS
  In this article, we describe fundamental design principles that are used to stabilize the musculoskeletal system at many different size scales and show that these design features are embodied in one particular form of architecture that is known as tensegrity.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Tensegrity structures are characterized by use of continuous tension and local compression; architecture, prestress (internal stress prior to application of external force), and triangulation play the most critical roles in terms of determining their mechanical stability. In living organisms, use of a hierarchy of tensegrity networks both optimizes structural efficiency and provides a mechanism to mechanically couple the parts with the whole: mechanical stresses applied at the macroscale result in structural rearrangements at the cell and molecular level.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Due to use of tensegrity architecture, mechanical stress is concentrated and focused on signal transducing molecules that physically associate with cell surface molecules that anchor cells to extracellular matrix, such as integrins, and with load-bearing elements within the internal cytoskeleton and nucleus. Mechanochemical transduction may then proceed through local stress-dependent changes in molecular mechanics, thermodynamics, and kinetics within the cell. In this manner, the entire cellular response to stress may be orchestrated and tuned by altering the prestress in the cell, just as changing muscular tone can alter mechanical stability and structural coordination throughout the whole musculoskeletal system.
authors.affiliation: Department of Surgery, Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
authors.forename: C S
authors.initials: CS
authors.lastname: Chen
authors.forename: D E
authors.initials: DE
authors.lastname: Ingber
mesh_terms: D001696:Biomechanical Phenomena; D003599:Cytoskeleton / Q000502:physiology*; D006801:Humans; D009142:Musculoskeletal Physiological Phenomena; D015398:Signal Transduction / Q000502:physiology; D013314:Stress, Mechanical