title: Hyperkalemia and ionized hypocalcemia during cardiac arrest and resuscitation: possible culprits for postcountershock arrhythmias?
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Early countershock of ventricular fibrillation (VF) has been shown to improve immediate and long-term outcome of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. However, studies indicate that countershock of prolonged VF most commonly results in asystole or a nonperfusing bradyarrhythmia (pulseless electrical activity [PEA]), which rarely respond to current therapy. The cause of these postcountershock rhythm disturbances is not well understood but may be related to electrical injury of the globally ischemic myocardium or to local metabolic abnormalities that impair impulse formation and cardiac contraction. The purpose of this study was to evaluate changes in serum potassium and free calcium homeostasis during cardiac arrest and advanced cardiac life support (ACLS) interventions.
  
  
  METHODS
  After sedation, intubation, anesthesia, and instrumentation, VF was induced in 13 dogs. After 7.5 minutes of VF, animals were immediately countershocked, standard closed-chest CPR was initiated, and epinephrine was administered (1 mg in repeated doses if necessary).
  
  
  RESULTS
  Ten animals could not be resuscitated despite 20 minutes of ACLS interventions. In these animals, a progressive increase in serum potassium was observed from the onset of ACLS to the termination of resuscitation efforts (4.3+/-.6 to 6.0+/-.8 mEq/L, P<.01). A significant increase was observed within 10 minutes of beginning ACLS measures. This was accompanied by a decrease in ionized calcium concentration over the same period (4.95+/-.40 to 3.44 mg/dL, P<.01). The decrease in ionized calcium was significant within 5 minutes of ACLS interventions. Nine of these 10 animals had either postcountershock asystole or PEA at the termination of resuscitative efforts. The increase in potassium was not related to acidemia. Successfully resuscitated animals did not demonstrate these electrolyte changes.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Ionized hypocalcemia and hyperkalemia occur during prolonged resuscitative efforts and may be related to dysfunctional transcellular ionic transport mechanisms. These cations play important roles in cardiac electrical and contractile activity and may play a role in refractory postcountershock rhythm disturbances.
authors.affiliation: UCLA School of Medicine, and the Department of Emergency Medicine, Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA, USA. jniemann@ucla.edu
authors.forename: J T
authors.initials: JT
authors.lastname: Niemann
authors.forename: C B
authors.initials: CB
authors.lastname: Cairns
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001145:Arrhythmias, Cardiac / Q000209:etiology*; D002118:Calcium / Q000097:blood; D016887:Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation / Q000009:adverse effects*; D004195:Disease Models, Animal; D004285:Dogs; D004554:Electric Countershock / Q000009:adverse effects*; D005260:Female; D006323:Heart Arrest / Q000150:complications*; D006947:Hyperkalemia / Q000150:complications* / Q000378:metabolism; D006996:Hypocalcemia / Q000150:complications* / Q000378:metabolism; D008297:Male; D011188:Potassium / Q000097:blood; D011897:Random Allocation; D013997:Time Factors; D016896:Treatment Outcome; D014693:Ventricular Fibrillation / Q000150:complications*
chemical_list: D011188:Potassium; D002118:Calcium