Postmenopausal hormone replacement, risk estimators for coronary artery disease and cardiovascular protection.
Menopause, regardless of age at onset, is associated with a marked increase in coronary artery disease (CAD) risk. A large body of observational clinical studies repeatedly demonstrated favorable associations between postmenopausal hormone replacement therapy (HRT) and cardiovascular morbidity, mortality, and risk factors. Estrogens may act in a gender-specific way on vascular endothelial cells and other components of the vessel wall, enhancing the synthesis and release of nitric oxide (NO) and other vasodilators, and by inhibiting the synthesis and release of vasoconstricting agents, thus favoring vasodilation. Menopause-related changes in metabolic cardiovascular risk factors are identifiable, as are HRT-related changes in these factors. The metabolic effects include changes in lipoprotein (a), coagulation and fibrinolysis as well as homocysteine metabolism. The various actions of estrogen alone and combined with progestogen on the vascular system are reviewed. Furthermore, the outcome of the recently published Heart and estrogen/progestin replacement study (HERS) data are put in perspective. In addition, we outline the present data on the effects of raloxifene, a new second generation selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM), which has been shown to favorably alter several markers of cardiovascular risk in postmenopausal women.
Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Vrije Universiteit (ICaR-VU), Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
V
V
Mijatovic
M J
MJ
van der Mooren
C D
CD
Stehouwer
J C
JC
Netelenbos
P
P
Kenemans
D000818:Animals; D002318:Cardiovascular Diseases / Q000517:prevention & control*; D002319:Cardiovascular System / Q000187:drug effects; D004730:Endothelium, Vascular / Q000187:drug effects / Q000503:physiopathology; D004965:Estrogen Antagonists / Q000494:pharmacology* / Q000627:therapeutic use; D004967:Estrogens / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D005260:Female; D006487:Hemostasis / Q000187:drug effects; D006710:Homocysteine / Q000502:physiology; D020249:Hormone Replacement Therapy; D006801:Humans; D017270:Lipoprotein(a) / Q000502:physiology; D009131:Muscle, Smooth, Vascular / Q000187:drug effects; D010880:Piperidines / Q000494:pharmacology* / Q000627:therapeutic use; D011372:Progestins / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D020849:Raloxifene Hydrochloride; D012307:Risk Factors
D004965:Estrogen Antagonists; D004967:Estrogens; D017270:Lipoprotein(a); D010880:Piperidines; D011372:Progestins; D006710:Homocysteine; D020849:Raloxifene Hydrochloride