title: Experiences with vaccination and epidemiological investigations on an anthrax outbreak in Australia in 1997.
abstract: Between January and February 1997, there was a severe outbreak of anthrax on 83 properties in north-central Victoria, Australia. Vaccination was used as a major tool to control the outbreak by establishing a vaccination buffer zone 30 km by 20 km. In all, 78, 649 cattle in 457 herds were vaccinated in a three week program. In the face of the outbreak, there was a delay before vaccination was able to stop deaths. In the 10 days following vaccination 144 cases of confirmed anthrax occurred and 38 cases occurred more than 10 days after vaccination. When all cattle on at-risk properties were revaccinated in October and early November 1997, there were only two confirmed cases of anthrax in vaccinated seven and nine month old calves in the following anthrax season. Investigations into the epidemiology of the outbreak were unable to establish a single major association for the spread of the disease by flies, biting insects, carrion scavengers, wind, manufactured feed, milk factory tanker routes, veterinary visits, animal treatments, movements of personnel between farms or burning of carcases. The weather conditions in the outbreak area were part of a long dry spell with periods of high daily and night temperatures, continuing high humidity over the period and higher than normal soil temperatures. It is possible that extensive earth works in the district involving irrigated pasture renovation and water channel and drainage renovation could have disturbed old anthrax graves. It is postulated that these works released spores that were dispersed in the preceding wet winter across poorly drained areas that formed the axis for the outbreak. The earth moving renovations establishing irrigation in the area were conducted in the late 1890s, and before the occurrence of anthrax outbreaks were recorded. The axis of the outbreak was the major stock route for cattle and sheep moving from southern Victoria to northern Victoria and southern New South Wales, and undoubtedly there would have been extensive anthrax outbreaks before vaccine became available in the 1890s. In respect of other outbreaks, the events in Victoria most resembled outbreaks of anthrax recorded in the United States of America in the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s.
authors.affiliation: Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Attwood, Victoria, Australia. Andrew.Turner@nre.vic.gov.au
authors.forename: A J
authors.initials: AJ
authors.lastname: Turner
authors.forename: J W
authors.initials: JW
authors.lastname: Galvin
authors.forename: R J
authors.initials: RJ
authors.lastname: Rubira
authors.forename: R J
authors.initials: RJ
authors.lastname: Condron
authors.forename: T
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Bradley
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000881:Anthrax / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000276:immunology / Q000517:prevention & control / Q000662:veterinary*; D001315:Australia / Q000453:epidemiology; D001408:Bacillus anthracis / Q000276:immunology / Q000302:isolation & purification*; D002417:Cattle; D002418:Cattle Diseases / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000276:immunology / Q000517:prevention & control; D004196:Disease Outbreaks; D006801:Humans; D014611:Vaccination