title: Mechanisms underlying the hemolytic and ichthyotoxic activities of maitotoxin.
abstract: Maitotoxin (MTX), a putative Ca(2+) channel activator produced by the dinoflagellate Gambierdiscus toxicus showed extremely potent hemolytic and ichthyotoxic activities. Hemolysis of 1% mouse blood cell suspension in saline occurred at 15 nM of MTX. The activity was enhanced six-fold in the presence of 10 microM of Ca(2+) and completely blocked by EDTA2Na, indicating its dependency on external Ca(2+). The MTX-induced hemolysis was little affected by L-type Ca(2+) channel blockers (diltiazem, nifedipine, verapamil) but was strongly inhibited by calmodulin blockers (prenylamine and chlorpromazine) or a phospholipase A2 inhibitor (quinacrine). MTX was mimicked by a calcium ionophore, calcimycin. Based on these results, a series of cellular events triggered by MTX were presumed to occur in the following sequence: increased Ca(2+) entry in cells, activation of calmodulin, promotion of phospholipase A2 activity, and finally destruction of cell membrane resulting from hydrolysis of membrane lipids. The sensitivity of blood cells to MTX varied significantly, dependent on the animal sources. Nucleated blood cells of carps and chickens were 100 times more resistant than those of mammals. LC(50) of MTX to freshwater fish Tanichthys albonubes in Ca(2+) free media (pH 8) was 5 nM but was markedly lowered to 3 pM by raising pH to 8 and increasing Ca(2+) concentration to 2 mM. In a marine environment MTX was 2000 times more toxic to fish than 42-di-hydrobrevetoxin-B (PbTx-3), one of the best known ichthyotoxins of red-tide origins.
authors.affiliation: Department of Applied Biochemistry, Graduate school of Agriculture, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan. igarasit@jfrl.or.jp
authors.forename: T
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Igarashi
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Aritake
authors.forename: T
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Yasumoto
mesh_terms: D001498:3-Pyridinecarboxylic acid, 1,4-dihydro-2,6-dimethyl-5-nitro-4-(2-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-, Methyl ester / Q000494:pharmacology; D000818:Animals; D000001:Calcimycin / Q000494:pharmacology; D002118:Calcium / Q000378:metabolism / Q000494:pharmacology; D002121:Calcium Channel Blockers / Q000494:pharmacology; D005393:Fish Diseases / Q000139:chemically induced*; D005399:Fishes; D006461:Hemolysis / Q000187:drug effects*; D006863:Hydrogen-Ion Concentration; D007928:Lethal Dose 50; D008274:Magnesium / Q000494:pharmacology; D008387:Marine Toxins / Q000633:toxicity*; D051379:Mice; D035964:Oxocins; D011796:Quinacrine / Q000633:toxicity; D000095702:Polyether Toxins
chemical_list: D001498:3-Pyridinecarboxylic acid, 1,4-dihydro-2,6-dimethyl-5-nitro-4-(2-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-, Methyl ester; D000001:Calcimycin; D002118:Calcium; D002121:Calcium Channel Blockers; D008274:Magnesium; D008387:Marine Toxins; D035964:Oxocins; D011796:Quinacrine; C020394:maitotoxin; D000095702:Polyether Toxins