title: A model of chronic dyspnea.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To present an overview of dyspnea, differentiate chronic dyspnea from acute dyspnea, critique models of dyspnea found in the nursing literature, and propose a new model of chronic dyspnea to guide the care and evaluation of chronic dyspnea in patients living with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Dyspnea is the major symptom that impairs quality of life for nearly 16 million Americans who have COPD. METHODS AND SOURCES: Review of scholarly literature on dyspnea by searching CINAHL and MEDLINE (1980-1998) using dyspnea and chronic obstructive lung disease as key words. The search produced studies conducted by a variety of health care professions including those in nursing, medicine, exercise physiology, and respiratory therapy.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The existing models fail to differentiate between acute and chronic dyspnea. These models were found to be inadequate for guiding interventions to decrease the long-term adverse consequences of chronic dyspnea.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  A useful model of chronic dyspnea defines chronic dyspnea as distress with varying levels of intensity and long-term physical, psychologic, and sociocultural consequences. The proposed model has implications for both research and clinical practice by identifying the consequences of chronic dyspnea as outcome measures of the effectiveness of treatment.
authors.affiliation: University of Texas-Houston School of Nursing, USA. cmccarley@sfasu.edu
authors.forename: C
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: McCarley
mesh_terms: D000208:Acute Disease; D003937:Diagnosis, Differential; D004417:Dyspnea / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000209:etiology / Q000451:nursing*; D006801:Humans; D008173:Lung Diseases, Obstructive / Q000150:complications / Q000451:nursing*; D016294:Models, Nursing; D009733:Nursing Diagnosis