title: HIV-1 protease inhibitor ritonavir modulates susceptibility to apoptosis of uninfected T cells.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Clinical experience with HIV-1 protease inhibitors (PIs) in the treatment of AIDS frequently has shown that increases in CD4+ T-cell counts can be independent of HIV-1 inhibition by these drugs. This disconnection between viral load and CD4 counts led us to investigate how the PI ritonavir directly affects leukocyte activation in vitro, using peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) fractions derived from normal donors.
  
  
  RESULTS
  When uninfected PBMC cultures were treated for 72 hours with ritonavir at concentrations similar to or lower than that shown to be effective in vivo, an increase in cell viability was observed. The susceptibility of PBMCs to apoptosis was markedly decreased after ritonavir treatment and correlated with lower levels of caspase-1 expression, decreases in annexin V staining, and reduced caspase-3 activity. Induction in vitro of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) production by PBMCs and monocytes was inhibited by ritonavir in a time- and dose-dependent manner at nontoxic concentrations.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Based on our data, we conclude that the HIV-1 PI ritonavir is an immune modulator that may affect leukocyte activation and apoptosis as an important part of its therapeutic benefit.
authors.affiliation: Institute of Human Virology, University of Maryland Biotechnology Institute, Baltimore 21201, USA. weichold@umbi.umd.edu
authors.forename: F F
authors.initials: FF
authors.lastname: Weichold
authors.forename: J L
authors.initials: JL
authors.lastname: Bryant
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Pati
authors.forename: O
authors.initials: O
authors.lastname: Barabitskaya
authors.forename: R C
authors.initials: RC
authors.lastname: Gallo
authors.forename: M S
authors.initials: MS
authors.lastname: Reitz
mesh_terms: D017304:Annexin A5 / Q000378:metabolism; D017209:Apoptosis / Q000187:drug effects*; D020170:Caspase 1 / Q000096:biosynthesis; D053148:Caspase 3; D020169:Caspases / Q000378:metabolism; D002470:Cell Survival / Q000187:drug effects*; D053222:Fas Ligand Protein; D017320:HIV Protease Inhibitors / Q000494:pharmacology*; D006801:Humans; D007963:Leukocytes, Mononuclear / Q000187:drug effects*; D008024:Ligands; D008562:Membrane Glycoproteins / Q000378:metabolism; D019438:Ritonavir / Q000494:pharmacology*; D014409:Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha / Q000378:metabolism; D019014:fas Receptor / Q000378:metabolism
chemical_list: D017304:Annexin A5; C505661:FASLG protein, human; D053222:Fas Ligand Protein; D017320:HIV Protease Inhibitors; D008024:Ligands; D008562:Membrane Glycoproteins; D014409:Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha; D019014:fas Receptor; C505407:CASP3 protein, human; D053148:Caspase 3; D020169:Caspases; D020170:Caspase 1; D019438:Ritonavir