title: Analgesia.
abstract: Critical to reducing patient morbidity as well as heightened ethical awareness, alleviation of pain in animals has become integral to medical case management and surgical procedures. Pharmacotherapy is directed at peripheral nociceptors, primary and secondary spinal neurons, and pain-processing areas in the CNS. Accordingly, three primary pharmacologic strategies have evolved: drugs that bind to and activate opioid receptors, drugs that bind to and activate alpha 2 receptors, and drugs that reduce de novo prostaglandin synthesis. In horses, the two predominant types of pain encountered are musculoskeletal and visceral pain. Several factors must be considered when devising a therapeutic strategy, including the etiology of the painful event, desired duration of therapy (acute vs chronic), desire for sedation, and potential side effects and toxicity. Opioids and alpha 2 agonists are particularly effective for visceral pain associated with colic. Butorphanol remains the only commercially available opioid and provides superior visceral analgesia compared with pentazocine or flunixin meglumine but not compared with the alpha 2 agonists. The behavioral changes such the sedative effects of alpha 2 agonists and the increased locomotion and CNS excitability seen with some opioids are important considerations when these agents are used as analgesics. NSAIDs may be considered for visceral pain therapy also, especially pain associated with an inflammatory component or endotoxemia. In particular, flunixin meglumine and ketoprofen provide prolonged analgesia and suppress the effects of endotoxin. Long-term therapy of musculoskeletal diseases usually necessitates chronic NSAID use. Although many NSAIDs are now available in approved equine formulations, there remain some important differences among NSAIDs for the practitioner to consider when choosing an analgesic. NSAIDs differ in their ability to ameliorate pyrexia, affect platelet function, alleviate pain, and reduce inflammation. For ease of administration, those available for oral use include phenylbutazone, meclofenamic acid, flunixin meglumine, and naproxen. All are potentially ulcerogenic, and poor tolerance to one may necessitate switching to another with a better toleration profile or to drug from a different analgesic class.
authors.affiliation: Animal Health Safety and Metabolism Central Research, Pfizer, Groton, CT 06340-8003, USA.
authors.forename: J O
authors.initials: JO
authors.lastname: Clark
authors.forename: T P
authors.initials: TP
authors.lastname: Clark
mesh_terms: D000316:Adrenergic alpha-Agonists / Q000627:therapeutic use; D000698:Analgesia / Q000662:veterinary*; D000700:Analgesics / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D000701:Analgesics, Opioid / Q000627:therapeutic use; D000818:Animals; D000894:Anti-Inflammatory Agents, Non-Steroidal / Q000627:therapeutic use; D006734:Horse Diseases / Q000188:drug therapy*; D006736:Horses; D010146:Pain / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000662:veterinary*
chemical_list: D000316:Adrenergic alpha-Agonists; D000700:Analgesics; D000701:Analgesics, Opioid; D000894:Anti-Inflammatory Agents, Non-Steroidal