title: The carcinogenic risk of high dose total body irradiation in non-human primates.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  High dose total body irradiation (TBI) in combination with chemotherapy, followed by rescue with bone marrow transplantation (BMT), is increasingly used for the treatment of haematological malignancies. With the increasing success of this treatment and its current introduction for treating refractory autoimmune diseases the risk of radiation carcinogenesis is of growing concern. Studies on tumour induction in non-human primates are of relevance in this context since the response of this species to radiation does not differ much from that in man.
  
  
  METHODS
  Since the early sixties, studies have been performed on acute effects in Rhesus monkeys and the protective action of bone marrow transplantation after irradiation with X-rays (average total body dose 6.8 Gy) and fission neutrons (average dose 3.4 Gy). Of those monkeys, which were irradiated and reconstituted with autologous bone marrow, 20 animals in the X-irradiated group and nine animals in the neutron group survived more than 3 years. A group of 21 non-irradiated Rhesus monkeys of a comparable age distribution served as controls. All animals were regularly screened for the occurrence of neoplasms. Complete necropsies were performed after natural death or euthanasia.
  
  
  RESULTS
  At post-irradiation intervals of 4-21 years an appreciable number of tumours was observed. In the neutron irradiated group eight out of nine animals died with one or more malignant tumours. In the X-irradiated group this fraction was 10 out of 20. The tumours in the control group, in seven out of the 21 animals, appeared at much older age compared with those in the irradiated cohorts. The histogenesis of the tumours was diverse with a preponderance of renal carcinoma, sarcomas among which osteosarcomas, and malignant glomus tumours in the irradiated groups.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  When corrected for competing risks, the carcinogenic risk of TBI in the Rhesus monkeys is similar to that derived from the studies of the Japanese atomic bomb survivors. The increase of the risk by a factor of 8, observed in the monkeys, indicates that patients are likely to develop malignancies more frequently and much earlier in life after TBI than non-exposed individuals. This finding underlines the necessity of regular screening of long-term surviving patients subjected to TBI and BMT.
authors.affiliation: Department of Clinical Oncology, Leiden University Medical Center, K1-P, P.O. Box 9600, 2300 RC, Leiden, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: J J
authors.initials: JJ
authors.lastname: Broerse
authors.forename: R W
authors.initials: RW
authors.lastname: Bartstra
authors.forename: D W
authors.initials: DW
authors.lastname: van Bekkum
authors.forename: M H
authors.initials: MH
authors.lastname: van der Hage
authors.forename: C
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Zurcher
authors.forename: M J
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: van Zwieten
authors.forename: C F
authors.initials: CF
authors.lastname: Hollander
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D005260:Female; D008253:Macaca mulatta; D008297:Male; D009381:Neoplasms, Radiation-Induced / Q000209:etiology*; D009502:Neutrons; D011879:Radiotherapy Dosage; D012307:Risk Factors; D014916:Whole-Body Irradiation / Q000009:adverse effects*