title: Measuring movement-exacerbated pain in cognitively impaired frail elders.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Prior research examining the utility of nonverbal measures of pain in persons with cognitive impairments has focused on acute procedurally-induced phasic pain (i.e., venipuncture and needle injections). The goal of the current project was to examine the utility of both self-report and nonverbal measures of pain in frail elders experiencing exacerbations of chronic musculoskeletal pain. These were assumed to be more representative of the day-to-day pain experience of elderly patients.
  
  
  METHODS
  Participants were 58 frail elders, 29 of whom had been found to have significant cognitive impairments. All were filmed as they undertook a series of structured activities (e.g., walking and reclining), and pain was assessed using self-report. Trained coders identified the incidence of pain-related behaviors using the videotapes. The various pain measures (i.e., self-report and nonverbal indices) were compared across both patient groups and the several activities.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Consistent with our hypotheses, more pain was identified (using both self-report and nonverbal measures) when patients engaged in more physically demanding activities. Facial reactions varied as a function of patient cognitive status, with those participants who were cognitively impaired more responsive. Of the various nonverbal indices that we examined, guarded behavior appeared to be especially sensitive. The various pain indices were only modestly correlated with one another.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This study supports the validity of self-report and behavioral measures of pain in frail elders with and without cognitive impairments. Each of the measures used contributed different information to pain assessment, suggesting that investigations of pain in elders with cognitive impairments should employ varying types of pain assessment tools.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, University of Regina, SK, Canada. Thomas.Hadjistavropoulos@uregina.ca
authors.forename: T
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Hadjistavropoulos
authors.forename: D L
authors.initials: DL
authors.lastname: LaChapelle
authors.forename: F K
authors.initials: FK
authors.lastname: MacLeod
authors.forename: B
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Snider
authors.forename: K D
authors.initials: KD
authors.lastname: Craig
mesh_terms: D000368:Aged; D000369:Aged, 80 and over; D001519:Behavior; D003072:Cognition Disorders / Q000150:complications*; D005149:Facial Expression; D005260:Female; D016330:Frail Elderly / Q000523:psychology*; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D009068:Movement; D010146:Pain / Q000150:complications* / Q000503:physiopathology* / Q000523:psychology; D010147:Pain Measurement / Q000379:methods*; D012647:Self-Assessment