title: Comparison of questionnaire, breath carbon monoxide and urine cotinine in assessing the smoking habits of Type 2 diabetic patients.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Previous studies have suggested that the self-reporting of smoking amongst diabetic patients is unreliable, and that objective markers such as breath carbon monoxide (CO) or urinary cotinine are needed. As these studies have been mostly in young Type 1 diabetic patients, the reliability of smoking history has been assessed in a large group of older Type 2 diabetic patients.
  
  
  METHODS
  Two hundred and ninety-nine Type 2 diabetic patients were investigated for smoking habits by unstructured questionnaire, breath CO, and urinary ratio.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Mean age of the group was 63 (range 30-80) years and 41% were female. Direct questioning suggested 77 (26%) to be smokers, and of these 852 had raised (>1 microg/mg) urinary cotinine-creatinine , and 71% raised (>8 p.p.m.) breath CO. Assuming urinary cotinine-creatinine as the 'gold standard', the sensitivity, specificity and positive predictive values for questionnaire were 97%, 95% and 85%, respectively; and for breath CO they were 74%, 98%, and 93%.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  It is concluded that at least in this population of Type 2 diabetic patients, a structured smoking history appeared to identify current smokers with good accuracy.
authors.affiliation: Division of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, UK.
authors.forename: A A
authors.initials: AA
authors.lastname: Ismail
authors.forename: G V
authors.initials: GV
authors.lastname: Gill
authors.forename: K
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Lawton
authors.forename: G M
authors.initials: GM
authors.lastname: Houghton
authors.forename: I A
authors.initials: IA
authors.lastname: MacFarlane
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D000369:Aged, 80 and over; D001944:Breath Tests; D002248:Carbon Monoxide / Q000032:analysis*; D003367:Cotinine / Q000652:urine*; D003924:Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D012680:Sensitivity and Specificity; D012907:Smoking; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires
chemical_list: D002248:Carbon Monoxide; D003367:Cotinine