Posttraumatic stress disorder: the burden to the individual and to society.
BACKGROUND
Little is known about the total population prevalence and societal costs of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD); this report reviews relevant literature on these topics.


METHODS
A literature search of computerized databases for published reports on trauma and PTSD was conducted. This literature was reviewed to find data on general population exposure to trauma, conditional risk of PTSD among those exposed to trauma both in focused samples of trauma victims and in general population samples, and the adverse consequences of PTSD.


RESULTS
PTSD was found to be a commonly occurring disorder that often has a duration of many years and is frequently associated with exposure to multiple traumas. The impairment associated with PTSD in U.S. samples, where the majority of research on these consequences has been carried out, is comparable to, or greater than, that of other seriously impairing mental disorders. Risk of suicide attempts is particularly high among people with PTSD. Available evidence suggests that the prevalence of PTSD and the adverse emotional and psychological consequences of PTSD are much greater in the many countries around the world that are in the midst of armed conflicts involving political, racial, or ethnic violence.


CONCLUSIONS
PTSD is a highly prevalent and impairing condition. Only a minority of people with PTSD obtain treatment. Early and aggressive outreach to treat people with PTSD could help reduce the enormous societal costs of this disorder.
Kessler
R C
RC
Department of Health Care Policy, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass 02115, USA. Kessler@hcp.med.harvard.edu
D015897:Comorbidity; D017281:Cost of Illness; D005260:Female; D017048:Health Care Costs; D006801:Humans; D008016:Life Change Events; D008297:Male; D001523:Mental Disorders / Q000453:epidemiology; D015995:Prevalence; D011632:Public Assistance / Q000191:economics; D012008:Recurrence; D012307:Risk Factors; D012917:Social Adjustment; D012946:Social Welfare / Q000191:economics; D013313:Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic / Q000453:epidemiology*; D013405:Suicide / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D014481:United States / Q000453:epidemiology