title: The Logic and Realism of the Hypothesis of Exploitation Ecosystems.
abstract: Hypotheses on trophic dynamics in terrestrial ecosystems fall into two major categories: those in which plants are assumed to be invulnerable to their consumers and those in which the build-up of plant biomass is assumed to require top-down control of folivores. The hypothesis of exploitation ecosystems (EEH) belongs to the latter category and focuses particularly on the consequences of the high energetic costs of maintenance of endotherms. Carnivorous endotherms require relatively high prey densities in order to break even. Moreover, they are dependent on folivorous prey during the limiting season, at least at high latitudes. The endotherm branch of the grazing web is thus predicted to collapse from three-link trophic dynamics (carnivores → folivores → plants → inorganic resources) to two-link dynamics (folivores → plants → inorganic resources) along gradients of decreasing primary productivity. Consequently, the vegetation of cold and unproductive areas is predicted to be under intense winter grazing pressure, which prevents the accumulation of aboveground plant biomass and excludes erect woody plants. In the most extreme habitats (e.g., polar deserts and their high alpine counterparts), even folivorous endotherms are predicted to be absent, and the scanty vegetation is predicted to be structured by preemptive competition. Within temperature-determined productivity gradients, EEH is corroborated by biomass patterns, by patterns in the structure and dynamics of carnivore, folivore, and plant communities, and by experimental results. The general idea of top-down trophic dynamics is supported for other autotroph-based systems, too, but the relevance and sufficiency of the energy constraint in explaining patterns in trophic dynamics appears to be variable. Moreover, critical empirical evidence for or against the capacity of folivorous insects to regulate plant biomass has not yet been obtained. Another open question is the ability of boreal and temperate browsers, evolved in productive environments with intense predation pressure and abundance of forage, to prevent the regeneration of the least palatable tree species. There are, thus, many open questions waiting to be answered and many exciting experiments waiting to be conducted.
authors.forename: Lauri
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Oksanen
authors.forename: Tarja
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Oksanen