title: Sulfate-reducing bacteria methylate mercury at variable rates in pure culture and in marine sediments.
abstract: Differences in methylmercury (CH(3)Hg) production normalized to the sulfate reduction rate (SRR) in various species of sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) were quantified in pure cultures and in marine sediment slurries in order to determine if SRB strains which differ phylogenetically methylate mercury (Hg) at similar rates. Cultures representing five genera of the SRB (Desulfovibrio desulfuricans, Desulfobulbus propionicus, Desulfococcus multivorans, Desulfobacter sp. strain BG-8, and Desulfobacterium sp. strain BG-33) were grown in a strictly anoxic, minimal medium that received a dose of inorganic Hg 120 h after inoculation. The mercury methylation rates (MMR) normalized per cell were up to 3 orders of magnitude higher in pure cultures of members of SRB groups capable of acetate utilization (e.g., the family Desulfobacteriaceae) than in pure cultures of members of groups that are not able to use acetate (e.g., the family Desulfovibrionaceae). Little or no Hg methylation was observed in cultures of Desulfobacterium or Desulfovibrio strains in the absence of sulfate, indicating that Hg methylation was coupled to respiration in these strains. Mercury methylation, sulfate reduction, and the identities of sulfate-reducing bacteria in marine sediment slurries were also studied. Sulfate-reducing consortia were identified by using group-specific oligonucleotide probes that targeted the 16S rRNA molecule. Acetate-amended slurries, which were dominated by members of the Desulfobacterium and Desulfobacter groups, exhibited a pronounced ability to methylate Hg when the MMR were normalized to the SRR, while lactate-amended and control slurries had normalized MMR that were not statistically different. Collectively, the results of pure-culture and amended-sediment experiments suggest that members of the family Desulfobacteriaceae have a greater potential to methylate Hg than members of the family Desulfovibrionaceae have when the MMR are normalized to the SRR. Hg methylation potential may be related to genetic composition and/or carbon metabolism in the SRB. Furthermore, we found that in marine sediments that are rich in organic matter and dissolved sulfide rapid CH(3)Hg accumulation is coupled to rapid sulfate reduction. The observations described above have broad implications for understanding the control of CH(3)Hg formation and for developing remediation strategies for Hg-contaminated sediments.
authors.affiliation: Skidaway Institute of Oceanography, Savannah, Georgia 31411, USA.
authors.forename: J K
authors.initials: JK
authors.lastname: King
authors.forename: J E
authors.initials: JE
authors.lastname: Kostka
authors.forename: M E
authors.initials: ME
authors.lastname: Frischer
authors.forename: F M
authors.initials: FM
authors.lastname: Saunders
mesh_terms: D015169:Colony Count, Microbial; D003470:Culture Media; D019015:Geologic Sediments / Q000382:microbiology*; D008628:Mercury / Q000378:metabolism*; D008745:Methylation; D008767:Methylmercury Compounds / Q000378:metabolism*; D015345:Oligonucleotide Probes / Q000235:genetics; D010802:Phylogeny; D012336:RNA, Ribosomal, 16S / Q000235:genetics; D012623:Seawater / Q000382:microbiology*; D016999:Sulfur-Reducing Bacteria / Q000145:classification / Q000235:genetics / Q000254:growth & development* / Q000378:metabolism*; D014871:Water Microbiology
chemical_list: D003470:Culture Media; D008767:Methylmercury Compounds; D015345:Oligonucleotide Probes; D012336:RNA, Ribosomal, 16S; D008628:Mercury