title: Changes in iodine metabolism during late pregnancy and lactation: a longitudinal study among Sudanese women.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To elucidate the persistence, or otherwise, of the pregnancy-related changes in the iodine metabolism and thyroid function in a population residing in an area of mild iodine deficiency in the Sudan.
  
  
  METHODS
  A longitudinal prospective cohort study involving pregnant women who were recruited during their third trimester of pregnancy and were followed up for up to nine months after delivery.
  
  
  METHODS
  The study was conducted among Sudanese women residing in the Omdurman area in Khartoum, an area with a total goitre rate of 17.5%.
  
  
  METHODS
  Forty-seven pregnant women were recruited during their third trimester of pregnancy. Their mean age and weight were 29+/-4.6 y and 62.4+/-8.7 kg, respectively. Age matched healthy non-pregnant women living in the same area (n=40) served as a control group.
  
  
  METHODS
  Serum levels of thyrotropin (TSH), thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3), thyroglobulin (Tg) and the urinary iodine concentration (UIC) were determined during the third trimester (first occasion), and subsequently at three months (second occasion), six months (third occasion) and nine months after delivery (fourth occasion). Control subjects provided corresponding samples on one occasion.
  
  
  METHODS
  UIC, TSH, Tg, FT4 and T3.
  
  
  RESULTS
  During the third trimester of pregnancy the median UIC and the free T4 (FT4) were lower than in the control group (P<0. 0001, P<0.0001, respectively), while the median Tg was higher than in the controls (P<0.03). Three months post-partum maximum thyroidal stimulation was evident, with elevated serum levels of TSH and Tg (P<0.0001, P<0.03) and reduced UIC and serum T3 and FT4 (P<0.0004, P<0.0005, P<0.0001), compared with the control group. Nine months post-partum the thyroid function was restored to the pre-pregnancy state, and the median values of TSH, Tg, T3, FT4 and UIC did not differ significantly from those in the control group.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our study suggests that the reversibility of the pregnancy-induced changes in the iodine status and thyroid function to the pre-pregnancy levels may depend on the iodine status of the mother during and after pregnancy. The thyroidal stress during the first three months of the post-partum period, which is partially due to the iodine loss in the breast milk, justifies further detailed studies to assess the iodine content of the breast milk and the role of breast milk as a vehicle for iodine supply of infants in situations of iodine deficiency.
  
  
  BACKGROUND
  This study was supported by a grant from the Swedish Agency for Research Co-operation with Developing Countries.
authors.affiliation: Section for International Child Health, Department of Women's and Children's Health, University Hospital, Uppsala, Sweden.
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Eltom
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Eltom
authors.forename: B
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Elnagar
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Elbagir
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Gebre-Medhin
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D005260:Female; D005865:Gestational Age; D006801:Humans; D007455:Iodine / Q000378:metabolism* / Q000652:urine; D007774:Lactation / Q000502:physiology*; D008137:Longitudinal Studies; D011247:Pregnancy / Q000502:physiology*; D011263:Pregnancy Trimester, Third; D013397:Sudan; D013954:Thyroglobulin / Q000097:blood; D013972:Thyrotropin / Q000097:blood; D013974:Thyroxine / Q000097:blood; D014284:Triiodothyronine / Q000097:blood
chemical_list: D014284:Triiodothyronine; D013972:Thyrotropin; D013954:Thyroglobulin; D007455:Iodine; D013974:Thyroxine