title: Appropriate use of animal models in the assessment of risk during prenatal development: an illustration using inorganic arsenic.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Assessing risks to human development from chemical exposure typically requires integrating findings from laboratory animal and human studies.
  
  
  METHODS
  Using a case study approach, we present a program designed to assess the risk of the occurrence of malformations from inorganic arsenic exposure. We discuss how epidemiological data should be evaluated for quality and criteria for determining whether an association is causal. In this case study, adequate epidemiological data were not available for evaluating the potential effect of arsenic on development. Consequently, results from appropriately designed, conducted, and interpreted developmental toxicity studies, which have been shown to be predictive of human risk under numerous scenarios, were used. In our case study, the existing animal data were not designed appropriately to assess risk from environmental exposures, although such studies may be useful for hazard identification. Because the human and animal databases were deficient, a research program comprising modern guideline toxicological studies was designed and conducted.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The results of those studies in rats, mice, and rabbits indicate that oral and inhalational exposures to inorganic arsenic do not cause structural malformations, and inhalational exposures produced no developmental effects at all. The new study results are discussed in conjunction with considerations of metabolism, toxicokinetics, and maternal toxicity.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Based on the available experimental data, and absent contrary findings from adequately conducted epidemiological studies, we conclude that exposure to inorganic arsenic by environmentally relevant routes poses no risk of the occurrence of malformations and little risk of other prenatal developmental toxicity in developing humans without concomitant and near-lethal toxicological effects in mothers.
authors.affiliation: WIL Research Laboratories, Inc., Ashland, Ohio 44805, USA.
authors.forename: J F
authors.initials: JF
authors.lastname: Holson
authors.forename: J M
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Desesso
authors.forename: C F
authors.initials: CF
authors.lastname: Jacobson
authors.forename: C H
authors.initials: CH
authors.lastname: Farr
mesh_terms: D000014:Abnormalities, Drug-Induced / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology*; D000818:Animals; D001151:Arsenic / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000493:pharmacokinetics / Q000633:toxicity*; D003627:Data Interpretation, Statistical; D004195:Disease Models, Animal; D004305:Dose-Response Relationship, Drug; D005314:Embryonic and Fetal Development / Q000187:drug effects; D004781:Environmental Exposure; D004812:Epidemiologic Methods; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D051379:Mice; D011247:Pregnancy; D011817:Rabbits; D051381:Rats; D018570:Risk Assessment
chemical_list: D001151:Arsenic