title: Beyond danger: unmethylated CpG dinucleotides and the immunopathogenesis of disease.
abstract: Oligonucleotide sequences containing unmethylated cytidine phosphate guanosine (CpG) motifs are known to have significant immunostimulatory properties. Because of these immunostimulatory effects, unmethylated CpG oligonucleotides are thought to act as 'danger signals' that produce a favorable immune response by alerting the host to the presence of invading organisms or abnormal cells. In contrast to this concept, we review the evidence that unmethylated CpG sequences derived either from microbial agents or from endogenous CpG-rich Alu motifs promote disease progression by inducing an aberrant or autoreactive immune response. Recognition of the negative effect of unmethylated CpG dinucleotides should lead to more effective immune strategies to combat infectious, inflammatory, autoimmune and malignant diseases.
authors.affiliation: International DNCB Study Group, California Pacific Medical Center, 450 Sutter Street, Suite 1504, San Francisco, CA 94108, USA.
authors.forename: B
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Goldberg
authors.forename: H B
authors.initials: HB
authors.lastname: Urnovitz
authors.forename: R B
authors.initials: RB
authors.lastname: Stricker
mesh_terms: D020087:Alu Elements / Q000276:immunology; D000818:Animals; D001424:Bacterial Infections / Q000276:immunology; D018899:CpG Islands / Q000276:immunology*; D019175:DNA Methylation; D004269:DNA, Bacterial / Q000276:immunology; D004279:DNA, Viral / Q000276:immunology; D018900:Dinucleotide Repeats / Q000276:immunology; D006801:Humans; D007154:Immune System Diseases / Q000209:etiology / Q000382:microbiology; D009362:Neoplasm Metastasis / Q000276:immunology; D009841:Oligonucleotides / Q000737:chemistry / Q000276:immunology
chemical_list: D004269:DNA, Bacterial; D004279:DNA, Viral; D009841:Oligonucleotides