title: Paradigms for subdural grids' implantation in patients with refractory epilepsy.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The need for invasive monitoring in patients with refractory epilepsy has been greatly reduced by the introduction of new technologies such as PET, SPECT and MRI in the clinical practice. On the other hand, 10 to 30% of the patients with refractory epilepsy have non-localizatory non-invasive preoperative work-up results. This paper reports on the paradigms for subdural electrodes implantation in patients with different refractory epileptic syndromes.
  
  
  METHODS
  Twenty-nine adult refractory epileptic patients were studied. Patients were divided into five different epileptic syndromes that represented the majority of the patients who needed invasive recordings: bitemporal (Group I; n=16 ), bi-frontal-mesial (Group II, n=5), hemispheric (Group III; n=2), anterior quadrant (Group IV; n=3) and posterior quadrant (Group V; n=3). All of them were submitted to extensive subdural electrodes' implantation (from 64 to 160 contacts) covering all the cortical surface potentially involved in epileptogenesis under general anesthesia.
  
  
  RESULTS
  All patients tolerated well the procedure. There was no sign or symptom of intracranial hypertension except for headache in 22 patients. In all except one Group II patient, prolonged electrocorticographic monitoring using the described subdural cortical coverage patterns was able to define a focal area amenable for resection. In all Groups II-V patients cortical stimulation was able to adequately map the rolandic and speach areas as necessary.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Despite recent technological advances invasive neurophysiological studies are still necessary in some patients with refractory epilepsy. The standardization of the paradigms for subdural implantation coupled to the study of homogeneous patients' populations as defined by MRI will certainly lead to a better understanding of the pathophysiology involved in such cases and an improved surgical outcome.
authors.affiliation: Epilepsy Surgery Program, Hospital Brigadeiro and Clinica de Diagnóstica e Terapêutica das Epilepsias, Sao Paulo SP, Brazil.
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Cukiert
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Sousa
authors.forename: E
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Machado
authors.forename: J A
authors.initials: JA
authors.lastname: Buratini
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Vieira
authors.forename: V
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Ferreira
authors.forename: C
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Forster
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Argentoni
authors.forename: L
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Frayman
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D004567:Electrodes, Implanted; D004827:Epilepsy / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging / Q000601:surgery*; D006801:Humans; D011859:Radiography; D016896:Treatment Outcome