title: Psychosocial determinants of the onset and escalation of smoking: cross-sectional and prospective findings in multiethnic middle school samples.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To investigate a broad range of social influence-related and global determinants of smoking to aid in the design of comprehensive multiethnic interventions by testing the most important factors of initiation and escalation of smoking across various subgroups.
  
  
  METHODS
  Cross-sectional (N = 2546) and cohort (N = 736) samples of multiethnic middle school students near a large Southwestern metropolis were surveyed through self-report questionnaires. The confidential questionnaires included information on demographics, risk factors, and smoking behavior and were administered in class by trained data collectors. Multivariable logistic regression analysis was used to examine the statistical significance and strength of the factors.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Those lower in self-esteem and higher in social assertiveness appeared to be most at risk for the onset of smoking, whereas those low in optimism appeared to be the most at risk for the escalation of smoking. Attitudes, friends' norms, parents' norms, perceived behavioral control, and perceived prevalence were consistent predictors of all smoking status outcomes.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The behavioral-specific determinants of smoking appear to be important predictors of smoking status outcomes in all demographic subgroups. The relationships of the global determinants were more dependent on the smoking outcome variable and subgroup examined. The findings may serve to help facilitate the targeting of comprehensive interventions aimed at reducing adolescent smoking in multiethnic and ethnic group-specific populations.
authors.affiliation: Education, Training, Research (ETR) Associates, Santa Cruz, California 95061, USA. scottc@etr.org
authors.forename: S C
authors.initials: SC
authors.lastname: Carvajal
authors.forename: D E
authors.initials: DE
authors.lastname: Wiatrek
authors.forename: R I
authors.initials: RI
authors.lastname: Evans
authors.forename: C R
authors.initials: CR
authors.lastname: Knee
authors.forename: S G
authors.initials: SG
authors.lastname: Nash
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000294:Adolescent Behavior; D016009:Chi-Square Distribution; D015331:Cohort Studies; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D016015:Logistic Models; D008297:Male; D011237:Predictive Value of Tests; D015995:Prevalence; D011446:Prospective Studies; D012307:Risk Factors; D012737:Sex Factors; D012907:Smoking / Q000208:ethnology* / Q000523:psychology*; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D013781:Texas / Q000453:epidemiology; D014505:Urban Population