title: Pathomechanisms of failures of the odontoid.
abstract: METHODS
  A finite element investigation to determine the causal mechanisms that lead to odontoid fracture.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To elucidate which loading scenarios, including rotational moments, compression-tension, and lateral and anteroposterior shear, can result in Type I, Type II, and Type III odontoid failures.
  
  
  BACKGROUND
  There is considerable controversy about the major loading path that causes odontoid fractures. A review of the clinical and laboratory research literature did not provide a consensus on this issue.
  
  
  METHODS
  A three-dimensional, nonlinear finite element model of the occipito-atlantoaxial (C0-C1-C2) complex was generated from human cadaveric data. Force loads were applied at the posterior margin of the occiput and were applied as lone entities or after the model was prepositioned in flexion, extension, or lateral-bending moments through applied rotation moments. Intraosseous stresses were reported to characterize the probability of fracture due to the applied loadings.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The data indicate that hyperextension can lead to failure of the odontoid at its superior tip (Type I). Finite element model predictions also demonstrated the propensity of loads that induce axial rotation to create relatively high maximum von Mises stress in the Type II fracture region. Flexion prepositioning reduced the stress response of the odontoid.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Force loading that puts the head in extension coupled with lateral shear or compression leads to Type I fractures, whereas axial rotation and lateral shear can produce Type II fractures. The model failed to elucidate causal mechanisms for Type III fractures. Flexion seems to provide a protective mechanism against force application that would otherwise cause a higher risk of odontoid failure.
authors.affiliation: Department of Biomedical Engineering, Iowa Spine Research Center, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, USA.
authors.forename: C M
authors.initials: CM
authors.lastname: Puttlitz
authors.forename: V K
authors.initials: VK
authors.lastname: Goel
authors.forename: C R
authors.initials: CR
authors.lastname: Clark
authors.forename: V C
authors.initials: VC
authors.lastname: Traynelis
mesh_terms: D001269:Atlanto-Occipital Joint / Q000033:anatomy & histology / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging / Q000473:pathology / Q000503:physiopathology; D001696:Biomechanical Phenomena; D002102:Cadaver; D002574:Cervical Vertebrae / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging / Q000293:injuries* / Q000473:pathology / Q000503:physiopathology; D005260:Female; D020342:Finite Element Analysis; D006801:Humans; D008875:Middle Aged; D008962:Models, Theoretical; D009809:Odontoid Process / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging / Q000293:injuries* / Q000473:pathology / Q000503:physiopathology; D011859:Radiography; D016103:Spinal Fractures / Q000209:etiology*