title: The application of atomic force microscopy to topographical studies and force measurements on the secreted adhesive of the green alga Enteromorpha.
abstract: Atomic force microscopy (AFM) enables the topographical structure of cells and biological materials to be resolved under natural (physiological) conditions, without fixation and dehydration artefacts associated with imaging methods in vacuo. It also provides a means of measuring interaction forces and the mechanical properties of biomaterials. In the present study, AFM has been applied for the first time to the study of the mechanical properties of a natural adhesive produced by a green plant cell. Swimming spores of the green alga Enteromorpha linza (L.) J. Ag. (7-10 microm) secrete an adhesive glycoprotein which provides firm anchorage to the substratum. Imaging of the adhesive in its hydrated state revealed a swollen gel-like pad, approximately 1 microm thick, surrounding the spore body. Force measurements revealed that freshly released adhesive has an adhesion strength of 173 +/- 1.7 mN m(-1) (mean +/- SE; n=90) with a maximum value for a single adhesion force curve of 458 mN m(-1). The adhesive had a compressibility (equivalent to Young's modulus) of 0.54 x 10(6) +/- 0.05 x 10(6) N m-2 (mean +/- SE; n=30). Within minutes of release the adhesive underwent a progressive 'curing' process with a 65% reduction in mean adhesive strength within an hour of settlement, which was also reflected in a reduction in the average length of the adhesive polymer strands (polymer extension) and a 10-fold increase in Young's modulus. Measurements on the spore surface itself revealed considerably lower adhesion-strength values but higher polymer-extension values than the adhesive pad, which may reflect the deposition of different polymers on this surface as a new cell wall is formed. The study demonstrates the value of AFM to the imaging of plant cells in the absence of fixation and dehydration artefacts and to the characterisation of the mechanical properties of plant glycoproteins that have potential utility as adhesives.
authors.affiliation: School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, UK. j.a.callow@bham.ac.uk
authors.forename: J A
authors.initials: JA
authors.lastname: Callow
authors.forename: S A
authors.initials: SA
authors.lastname: Crawford
authors.forename: M J
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Higgins
authors.forename: P
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Mulvaney
authors.forename: R
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Wetherbee
mesh_terms: D002448:Cell Adhesion; D000460:Chlorophyta / Q000502:physiology* / Q000648:ultrastructure*; D018625:Microscopy, Atomic Force / Q000379:methods; D008855:Microscopy, Electron, Scanning; D013170:Spores; D013997:Time Factors