title: Cigarette smoking and colorectal cancer mortality in the cancer prevention study II.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Recent studies suggest that long-term cigarette smoking is associated with an increased risk of colorectal cancer. Whether the association is causal or due to confounding remains unclear.
  
  
  METHODS
  We examined cigarette smoking in relation to colorectal cancer mortality, evaluating smoking duration and recency and controlling for potential confounders in the Cancer Prevention Study II. This prospective nationwide mortality study of 1 184 657 adults (age > or =30 years) was begun by the American Cancer Society in 1982. After exclusions, our analytic cohort included 312 332 men and 469 019 women, among whom 4432 colon or rectal cancer deaths occurred between 1982 and 1996 among individuals who were cancer free in 1982. Rate ratios (RRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were estimated by fitting Cox proportional hazards models. All statistical tests were two-sided.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Multivariate-adjusted colorectal cancer mortality rates were highest among current smokers, were intermediate among former smokers, and were lowest in lifelong nonsmokers. The multivariate-adjusted RR (95% CI) for current compared with never smokers was 1.32 (1.16-1.49) among men and 1.41 (1.26-1.58) among women. Increased risk was evident after 20 or more years of smoking for men and women combined as compared with never smokers. Risk among current and former smokers increased with duration of smoking and average number of cigarettes smoked per day; risk in former smokers decreased significantly with years since quitting. If the multivariate-adjusted RR estimates in this study do, in fact, reflect causality, then approximately 12% of colorectal cancer deaths among both men and women in the general U.S. population in 1997 were attributable to smoking.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Long-term cigarette smoking is associated with increased risk of colorectal cancer mortality in both men and women. Clear reduction in risk is observed with early smoking cessation.
authors: Epidemiology and Surveillance Research, American Cancer Society, Atlanta, GA 30329-4251, USA. achao@cancer.org
authors: A
authors: A
authors: Chao
authors: M J
authors: MJ
authors: Thun
authors: E J
authors: EJ
authors: Jacobs
authors: S J
authors: SJ
authors: Henley
authors: C
authors: C
authors: Rodriguez
authors: E E
authors: EE
authors: Calle
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D017677:Age Distribution; D000367:Age Factors; D000368:Aged; D015179:Colorectal Neoplasms / Q000209:etiology* / Q000401:mortality* / Q000517:prevention & control; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D015999:Multivariate Analysis; D016017:Odds Ratio; D012306:Risk; D012307:Risk Factors; D017678:Sex Distribution; D012907:Smoking / Q000009:adverse effects*; D013997:Time Factors; D014481:United States / Q000453:epidemiology