title: Gender differences in depression. Critical review.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  With few exceptions, the prevalence, incidence and morbidity risk of depressive disorders are higher in females than in males, beginning at mid-puberty and persisting through adult life.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To review putative risk factors leading to gender differences in depressive disorders.
  
  
  METHODS
  A critical review of the literature, dealing separately with artefactual and genuine determinants of gender differences in depressive disorders.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Although artefactual determinants may enhance a female preponderance to some extent, gender differences in depressive disorders are genuine. At present, adverse experiences in childhood, depression and anxiety disorders in childhood and adolescence, sociocultural roles with related adverse experiences, and psychological attributes related to vulnerability to life events and coping skills are likely to be involved. Genetic and biological factors and poor social support, however, have few or no effects in the emergence of gender differences.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Determinants of gender differences in depressive disorders are far from being established and their combination into integrated aetiological models continues to be lacking.
authors: Unità Operativa di Psichiatria I, Azienda Ospedaliera Ospedale di Circolo e Fondazione Macchi, Varese, Italy.
authors: M
authors: M
authors: Piccinelli
authors: G
authors: G
authors: Wilkinson
mesh_terms: D000223:Adaptation, Psychological; D003866:Depressive Disorder / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000523:psychology; D018450:Disease Progression; D005190:Family; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D009638:Norepinephrine / Q000502:physiology; D010342:Patient Acceptance of Health Care; D015995:Prevalence; D012307:Risk Factors; D012701:Serotonin / Q000502:physiology; D012737:Sex Factors; D012944:Social Support; D013315:Stress, Psychological / Q000523:psychology
chemical_list: D012701:Serotonin; D009638:Norepinephrine