title: Reconstruction of stenotic or occluded iliofemoral veins and inferior vena cava using intravascular stents: re-establishing access for future cardiac catheterization and cardiac surgery.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The study evaluated the safety and efficacy of stent reconstruction of stenotic/occluded iliofemoral veins (IFV) and inferior vena cava (IVC).
  
  
  BACKGROUND
  Patients with congenital heart defects and stenotic or occluded IFV/IVC may encounter femoral venous access problems during future cardiac surgeries or catheterizations.
  
  
  METHODS
  Twenty-four patients (median age 4.9 years) underwent implantation of 85 stents in 22 IFV and 6 IVC. Fifteen vessels were severely stenotic and 13 were completely occluded. Although guide wires were easily passed across the stenotic vessels, occluded vessels required puncture through the thrombosed sites using a stiff wire or transseptal needle. Once traversed, the occluded site was dilated serially prior to stent implantation.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Following stent placement, the mean vessel diameter increased from 0.9 +/- 1.6 to 7.4 +/- 2.6 mm (p < 0.05). Twenty-one of 28 vessels had long segment stenosis/occlusion requiring two to seven overlapping stents. Repeat catheterizations were performed in seven patients (9 stented vessels) at mean follow-up of 1.6 years. Seven vessels remained patent with mean diameter of 6.4 +/- 2.0 mm. Two vessels were occluded, but they were easily recanalized and redilated. Echocardiographic follow-up in two patients with IVC stents demonstrated wide patency. In four additional patients, a stented vessel was utilized for vascular access during subsequent cardiac surgery (n = 3) and endomyocardial biopsy (n = 1). Therefore, 13 of 15 stented vessels (87%) remained patent at follow-up thus far.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Stenotic/obstructed IFV and IVC may be reconstructed using stents to re-establish venous access to the heart for future cardiac catheterization and/or surgeries.
authors.affiliation: Children's Hospital of San Diego, California 92123, USA. fing@chsd.org
authors.forename: F F
authors.initials: FF
authors.lastname: Ing
authors.forename: T E
authors.initials: TE
authors.lastname: Fagan
authors.forename: R G
authors.initials: RG
authors.lastname: Grifka
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Clapp
authors.forename: M R
authors.initials: MR
authors.lastname: Nihill
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Cocalis
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Perry
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Mathewson
authors.forename: C E
authors.initials: CE
authors.lastname: Mullins
mesh_terms: D000800:Angioplasty, Balloon; D006328:Cardiac Catheterization; D002675:Child, Preschool; D003251:Constriction, Pathologic / Q000628:therapy; D005260:Female; D005268:Femoral Vein; D006330:Heart Defects, Congenital / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000628:therapy; D006801:Humans; D007084:Iliac Vein; D008297:Male; D015607:Stents; D016896:Treatment Outcome; D014682:Vena Cava, Inferior