title: Supercooling capacity of Urophora affinis and U. quadrifasciata (Diptera: Tephritidae) on spotted knapweed: comparisons among plants, sites, time of season, and gall densities.
abstract: Larval supercooling points of Urophora affinis Frauenfeld and U. quadrifasciata (Meigen) were compared among plants, six research sites in western Montana, four fall/winter time periods, and among gall densities. These two tephritid fly species are introduced biological control agents of spotted knapweed, Centaurea maculosa Lamarck, and diffuse knapweed, Centaurea diffusa Lamarck. Few differences in larval supercooling points for U. affinis and U. quadrifasciata were found among plants, and where differences were found, they were not consistent across fall/winter time periods. Significant differences in larval supercooling points were found among sites and across fall/winter time periods. No relationship was found between larval supercooling points and site elevation. Larval supercooling points of both U. affinis and U. quadrifasciata showed no relationship with the density of Urophora galls within spotted knapweed capitula. Mean larval supercooling points of U. affinis were consistently lower than those of U. quadrifasciata across sites and fall/winter time periods. In conclusion, temporal differences in temperature over the fall/winter time periods and microclimatic differences among sites appear to be the most important abiotic factors influencing the supercooling points in U. affinis and U. quadrifasciata.
authors.affiliation: Department of Entomology, Montana State University, 59717, Bozeman, MT, USA
authors.forename: R M.
authors.initials: RM
authors.lastname: Nowierski
authors.forename: B C.
authors.initials: BC
authors.lastname: Fitzgerald
authors.forename: Z
authors.initials: Z
authors.lastname: Zeng