title: Diamidine compounds: selective uptake and targeting in Plasmodium falciparum.
abstract: Extensive drug resistance in Plasmodium falciparum emphasizes the urgent requirement for novel antimalarial agents. Here we report potent antimalarial activity of a number of diamidine compounds. The lead compound pentamidine is concentrated 500-fold by erythrocytes infected with P. falciparum. Pentamidine accumulation can be blocked by inhibitors of hemoglobin digestion, suggesting that the drug binds to ferriprotoporphyrin IX (FPIX). All of the compounds bound to FPIX in vitro and inhibited the formation of hemozoin. Furthermore, inhibitors of hemoglobin digestion markedly antagonized the antimalarial activity of the diamidines, indicating that binding to FPIX is crucial for the activity of diamidine drugs. Pentamidine was not accumulated into uninfected erythrocytes. Pentamidine transport into infected cells exhibits an initial rapid phase, nonsaturable in the micromolar range and sensitive to inhibition by furosemide and glibenclamide. Changing the counter-ion in the order Cl(-) < Br(-) < NO(2)(-) < I(-) <SCN(-) markedly stimulated pentamidine transport. These data suggest that pentamidine is transported although a pore or ion channel with properties similar to those of the recently characterized 'induced permeability pathway' on the infected red cell membrane. In summary, the diamidines exhibit two levels of selectivity against P. falciparum. The route of entry and molecular target are both specific to malaria-infected cells and are distinct from targets in other protozoa. Drugs that target the hemoglobin degradation pathway of malaria parasites have a proven record of accomplishment. The employment of induced permeability pathways to access this target represents a novel approach to antiparasite chemotherapy and offers an additional level of selectivity.
authors: Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, The University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom.
authors: A M
authors: AM
authors: Stead
authors: P G
authors: PG
authors: Bray
authors: I G
authors: IG
authors: Edwards
authors: H P
authors: HP
authors: DeKoning
authors: B C
authors: BC
authors: Elford
authors: P A
authors: PA
authors: Stocks
authors: S A
authors: SA
authors: Ward
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001692:Biological Transport; D002463:Cell Membrane Permeability; D003460:Crystallization; D016503:Drug Delivery Systems; D015195:Drug Design; D004912:Erythrocytes / Q000187:drug effects / Q000378:metabolism* / Q000469:parasitology; D006420:Hemeproteins / Q000187:drug effects; D006427:Hemin / Q000737:chemistry / Q000378:metabolism; D006801:Humans; D066298:In Vitro Techniques; D008958:Models, Molecular; D021261:Parasitic Sensitivity Tests; D010419:Pentamidine / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000493:pharmacokinetics* / Q000494:pharmacology; D010963:Plasmodium falciparum / Q000187:drug effects / Q000378:metabolism*; D014316:Tritium; D014344:Trypanocidal Agents / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000493:pharmacokinetics* / Q000494:pharmacology
chemical_list: D006420:Hemeproteins; D014344:Trypanocidal Agents; D014316:Tritium; C020753:hemozoin; D010419:Pentamidine; D006427:Hemin