title: Epipen as an alternative to glucagon in the treatment of hypoglycemia in children with diabetes.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Fear of a severe hypoglycemic reaction is a major obstacle to achieving near-normal plasma glucose levels. Although parenteral glucagon is effective in treating these reactions, it is cumbersome to use, causes severe nausea, and is impractical in the school setting. Epinephrine is available as a premixed injection (Epipen) that may be used by all care providers. Using Epipen to treat hypoglycemia may be an effective, safe, and easy-to-use alternative to glucagon.
  
  
  METHODS
  Ten children (age 11.7 +/- 2.4 years) with type 1 diabetes were studied on two occasions. After an overnight equilibration period, hypoglycemia was induced via an insulin pump (1 mU x kg(-1) x min(-1)). At a blood glucose level of 2.8 mmol/l, either glucagon (1 mg) or epinephrine (0.3 mg), in random order, was administered intramuscularly and responses were monitored.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Plasma free insulin concentrations were similar in both studies. Plasma glucose levels increased by 1.7 +/- 0.2 mmol/l (mean +/- SEM) in 10 min and by 2.6 +/- 0.2 mmol/l in 15 min with administration of glucagon and were not consistently increased with administration of epinephrine (P < 0.01). Peak glucagon concentrations after administration of glucagon were >60-fold higher than basal concentrations. After administration of epinephrine, peak epinephrine levels were 20-fold higher than basal concentrations.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Epinephrine does not seem to be an adequate substitute for glucagon in the treatment of severe hypoglycemia. The effectiveness of glucagon in reversing hypoglycemia and its side effects of nausea and vomiting are likely related to the markedly supraphysiologic plasma levels achieved with the standard intramuscular dose.
authors.affiliation: Department of Pediatrics, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, USA. teresa.monsod@yale.edu
authors.forename: T P
authors.initials: TP
authors.lastname: Monsod
authors.forename: W V
authors.initials: WV
authors.lastname: Tamborlane
authors.forename: L
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Coraluzzi
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Bronson
authors.forename: T
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Yong-Zhan
authors.forename: J A
authors.initials: JA
authors.lastname: Ahern
mesh_terms: D000318:Adrenergic beta-Agonists / Q000097:blood / Q000627:therapeutic use; D001786:Blood Glucose / Q000187:drug effects / Q000378:metabolism; D002648:Child; D018592:Cross-Over Studies; D003922:Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1 / Q000097:blood / Q000188:drug therapy*; D004837:Epinephrine / Q000097:blood / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D005765:Gastrointestinal Agents / Q000097:blood / Q000627:therapeutic use; D005934:Glucagon / Q000097:blood; D006442:Glycated Hemoglobin / Q000032:analysis; D006801:Humans; D007003:Hypoglycemia / Q000139:chemically induced* / Q000188:drug therapy*; D007328:Insulin / Q000009:adverse effects*; D007700:Kinetics
chemical_list: D000318:Adrenergic beta-Agonists; D001786:Blood Glucose; D004837:Epinephrine; D005765:Gastrointestinal Agents; D005934:Glucagon; D006442:Glycated Hemoglobin; D007328:Insulin