title: A perspective on laser lithotripsy: the fragmentation processes.
abstract: This paper describes in simple terms the physics of laser-calculus interactions and introduces a method with which physicians can understand or evaluate the application of any new laser technique for use in lithotripsy or other medical fields. Tissue optical properties and laser parameters govern the mechanism(s) of fragmentation of urinary or biliary calculi. Laser pulse energies for clinical lithotripsy range from Q0 = 20 mJ to 2 J for short-pulsed lasers to long-pulsed lasers, respectively. Lasers with short pulse durations (i.e., less than a few microseconds) fragment calculi by means of shockwaves following optical breakdown and plasma expansion of ionized water or calculus compositions or by cavitation collapse, thus manifesting a photoacoustical effect. Laser-tissue interactions involving dominant photomechanical or photoacoustical effects are usually stress confined. Long-pulsed lasers (i.e., >100 microsec), on the other hand, generate minimal acoustic waves, and calculi are fragmented by temperatures beyond the thresholds for vaporization of calculus constituents, melting, or chemical decomposition.
authors.affiliation: Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin,  78712, USA.
authors.forename: K F
authors.initials: KF
authors.lastname: Chan
authors.forename: T J
authors.initials: TJ
authors.lastname: Pfefer
authors.forename: J M
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Teichman
authors.forename: A J
authors.initials: AJ
authors.lastname: Welch
mesh_terms: D006801:Humans; D053685:Laser Therapy; D008096:Lithotripsy / Q000379:methods* / Q000639:trends; D017711:Nonlinear Dynamics