title: Accomplishments and challenges of surgical simulation.
abstract: For nearly a decade, advanced computer technologies have created extraordinary educational tools using three-dimensional (3D) visualization and virtual reality. Pioneering efforts in surgical simulation with these tools have resulted in a first generation of simulators for surgical technical skills. Accomplishments include simulations with 3D models of anatomy for practice of surgical tasks, initial assessment of student performance in technical skills, and awareness by professional societies of potential in surgical education and certification. However, enormous challenges remain, which include improvement of technical fidelity, standardization of accurate metrics for performance evaluation, integration of simulators into a robust educational curriculum, stringent evaluation of simulators for effectiveness and value added to surgical training, determination of simulation application to certification of surgical technical skills, and a business model to implement and disseminate simulation successfully throughout the medical education community. This review looks at the historical progress of surgical simulators, their accomplishments, and the challenges that remain.
authors.affiliation: Yale University School of Medicine, 40 Temple Street, New Haven, CT 06510, USA.
authors.forename: R M
authors.initials: RM
authors.lastname: Satava
mesh_terms: D019412:Anatomy, Cross-Sectional / Q000266:history; D003198:Computer Simulation / Q000266:history* / Q000639:trends; D004724:Endoscopy / Q000266:history* / Q000639:trends; D013502:General Surgery / Q000193:education*; D049673:History, 20th Century; D006801:Humans; D021621:Imaging, Three-Dimensional / Q000266:history / Q000639:trends; D008953:Models, Anatomic; D014584:User-Computer Interface