title: The appeal cycle in three cultures: an exploratory comparison of child development.
abstract: Mother-child behaviors were studied in three cultural groups: Caucasian American (CA), overseas Japanese (JPN), and Chinese Vietnamese (CVN) immigrants. The children were sixteen to twenty-five months old, and the appeal cycle, with its descriptive analytic method, was the research paradigm. Group differences were found in appeal cycle occurrence and phase frequencies. CA mothers promoted independence through encouragement of decision making and toddler-initiated play, and through nonintrusive interactions. Neither JPN nor CVN mothers encouraged independence. JPN mothers were subtly directive; CVN mothers overtly so. Generally, CA toddlers played independently, evincing a beginning capacity for self-regulation. JPN and CVN toddlers reacted to separation by staying close to their mothers, and fewer were observed to play independently than in the CA group. CVN toddlers played independently more frequently than JPN toddlers, but less frequently than CA toddlers. Quantitative measures of dyadic behaviors generally support the descriptive findings, though methodological constraints did not permit comparison of phase sequencing. The findings reflect cultural differences in child development thought to influence psychic structure formation.
authors.affiliation: Seattle Psychoanalytic Society and Institute, USA. Jtokimoto@aol.com
authors.forename: J T
authors.initials: JT
authors.lastname: Okimoto
authors.forename: C F
authors.initials: CF
authors.lastname: Settlage
authors.forename: W
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Freed
authors.forename: K
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Klein
authors.forename: E
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Dao
authors.forename: J A
authors.initials: JA
authors.lastname: Campbell
authors.forename: Y
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Yoshiike
authors.forename: B
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Lui
authors.forename: C
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Mason
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D002657:Child Development; D002675:Child, Preschool; D002681:China / Q000208:ethnology; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D003466:Cultural Characteristics; D003657:Decision Making; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007223:Infant; D007564:Japan; D008297:Male; D009034:Mother-Child Relations; D010988:Play and Playthings; D020377:Self Efficacy; D012919:Social Behavior; D014481:United States; D014744:Vietnam; D044465:White People / Q000523:psychology