title: Auditory detection of simulated crackles in breath sounds.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Computerized analysis of breath sounds has relied on human auditory perception as the reference standard for identifying crackles. In this study, we tested the human audibility of crackles by superimposing artificial clicks on recorded breath sounds and having physicians listen to the recordings to see if they could identify the crackles.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To establish the audibility of simulated crackles introduced in breath sounds of different intensity, to study the effects of crackle characteristics on their audibility, and to investigate crackle detection within and between observers.
  
  
  METHODS
  Fine, medium, and coarse crackles with large and small amplitude were synthesized by computer software. Waveform parameters were based on published characteristics of lung sound crackles. The amplitude for small crackles was defined as just above the threshold of audibility for simulated crackles inserted in sound recorded during breath hold. Simulated crackles were then superimposed on breath sounds recorded at 0 L/s (breath hold), 1 L/s, and 2 L/s airflow. Five physicians listened during playback on two separate occasions to determine if crackles could be heard and to calculate the interobserver and intraobserver variations.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Failed detection of crackles was significantly more common in the following conditions: (1) background breath sounds had higher intensity (2 L/s airflow) compared to lower intensity (1 L/s), (2) crackle type was coarse or medium compared to fine, and (3) crackle amplitude was small compared to large. Both intraobserver and interobserver agreements were high (kappa > 0.6).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The validation of automated techniques for crackle detection in lung sound analysis should not rely on auscultation as the only reference. Detection of crackles is facilitated when patients take slow, deep breaths that generate little breath sounds.
authors.affiliation: Department of Pediatrics and Child Health, University of Manitoba, and the Respiratory Acoustics Laboratory, John Buhler Research Centre, Winnipeg, Canada. kiyokama@cc.umanitoba.ca
authors.forename: H
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Kiyokawa
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Greenberg
authors.forename: K
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Shirota
authors.forename: H
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Pasterkamp
mesh_terms: D001307:Auditory Perception / Q000502:physiology*; D001314:Auscultation; D003198:Computer Simulation; D006801:Humans; D012135:Respiratory Sounds