title: The basis for the development of a fuselage evacuation time for a ditched helicopter.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  When a helicopter ditches or crashes in water, unless the buoyancy bags are inflated, it commonly sinks inverted. Thus, crew and passengers must make an underwater escape. It is postulated that later passengers in the escape sequence do not have the breath-holding ability to conduct a successful escape, particularly if the water is cold. This contributes to the 20-50% mortality rate in survivable accidents.
  
  
  METHODS
  There were 132 immersed subject evaluations which were conducted in daylight and darkness to measure escape times from a helicopter underwater escape trainer, configured to the Super Puma, seated for 15 and 18 passengers. The subjects were highly experienced instructors or Navy clearance divers.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The time from when each subject's head disappeared underwater until each subject surfaced and total fuselage evacuation time were measured and any problems hampering escape were noted. Breath-holding for the last subject out ranged from 28 to 92 s. An emergency breathing system was used by a minimum of four subjects each time and a maximum of 11 subjects in one condition. The buoyancy of the survival suit was the principal component that hampered escape.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Breath-holding times were too long for the later subjects to escape without resorting to an EBS, in spite of the fact that they were highly trained. For regular crew and passengers flying over water, this would explain the high mortality, etc. Therefore, a new helicopter standard should be developed requiring fuselage design to accommodate total evacuation within 20 s from underwater. For current helicopters, where this cannot be achieved, passengers should be provided with some form of air supply, or, after ditching, the helicopter should be modified so that it will stay afloat on its side and retain an air space in the cabin.
authors.affiliation: Survival Systems Limited, Dartmouth, NS, Canada. ssl@ns.sympatico.ca
authors.forename: C J
authors.initials: CJ
authors.lastname: Brooks
authors.forename: H C
authors.initials: HC
authors.lastname: Muir
authors.forename: P N
authors.initials: PN
authors.lastname: Gibbs
mesh_terms: D000060:Accidents, Aviation / Q000401:mortality / Q000517:prevention & control*; D000401:Aircraft; D001835:Body Weight; D003624:Darkness; D004867:Equipment Design; D006804:Ergonomics; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007101:Immersion / Q000009:adverse effects*; D008027:Light; D008297:Male; D009949:Orientation; D017751:Safety Management / Q000379:methods*; D013534:Survival; D013997:Time Factors