title: Molecular epidemiology of viral pathogens and tracing of transmission routes: hepatitis-, calici- and hantaviruses.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The need to rapidly identify new therapeutic drugs and vaccines for clinically important viral infections has resulted in intensive study of the molecular properties of viruses. Modern molecular techniques have provided tools for tracing infections and studying the evolution of viruses. OBJECTIVE STUDY AND DESIGN: Two examples illustrating how modern molecular techniques can be used in clinical virology and molecular epidemiology (hepatitis and caliciviruses), and one example documenting their importance in basic research (hantaviruses) will be discussed.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Water- and food-borne outbreaks caused by the faeco-orally spread hepatitis A virus (HAV) are common in areas lacking proper sanitation, but they are possible also in countries with low seroprevalence. In water epidemics, the sequence comparisons between the virus from patients and from water have been used successfully. Hepatitis B virus variants are clinically important and challenge the diagnostic tests and prophylactic measures. Some hepatitis C (HCV) genotypes appear to be associated with more severe pathology and others respond better to antiviral treatment. Nosocomial and occupational infections are not rare, and the source can be identified by phylogenetic analysis of nucleotide sequences obtained from the infected individuals. The overwhelming role of Norwalk-like caliciviruses (NLV) in adult diarrhoea and especially in food- and water-borne epidemics has become apparent during the last decade. Methods are under development for detecting these viruses, not only from patient samples and water, but also from other environmental samples (e.g. foodstuff and surface swabs). The analysis of the genetic variation and evolution of the Old World hantaviruses in their carrier rodents has shown that the extent of genetic diversity correlates with geographical distance. As a rule, phylogenetic relationships of hantaviruses resemble those of their rodent hosts, suggesting virus-host co-evolution. Exceptional host-switch events allow a study on still radiating hantavirus species. There is suggestive evidence that natural reassortant hantaviruses are involved in human infection.
authors.affiliation: Department of Virology, HUCH-Laboratory Diagnostics, Helsinki University Central Hospital/Haartman Institute, Haartmaninkatu 3, 00290, Helsinki, Finland. maija.lappalainen@helsinki.fi
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Lappalainen
authors.forename: R W
authors.initials: RW
authors.lastname: Chen
authors.forename: L
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Maunula
authors.forename: C
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: von Bonsdorff
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Plyusnin
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Vaheri
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D002139:Caliciviridae / Q000145:classification / Q000235:genetics / Q000302:isolation & purification*; D017250:Caliciviridae Infections / Q000635:transmission / Q000821:virology; D006476:Orthohantavirus / Q000145:classification / Q000235:genetics / Q000302:isolation & purification*; D018778:Hantavirus Infections / Q000635:transmission / Q000821:virology; D006518:Hepatitis Viruses / Q000235:genetics / Q000302:isolation & purification*; D006524:Hepatitis, Viral, Animal / Q000635:transmission / Q000821:virology; D006525:Hepatitis, Viral, Human / Q000635:transmission / Q000821:virology; D006801:Humans; D017720:Molecular Epidemiology