title: The effect of physiological levels of glucagon-like peptide-1 on appetite, gastric emptying, energy and substrate metabolism in obesity.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Peripheral infusions of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) in humans have been shown to inhibit gastrointestinal motility and decrease hunger and energy intake. However, these investigations used supraphysiological doses. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of a GLP-1 infusion in a physiological dose on appetite sensations, energy intake, gastric emptying, energy and substrate metabolism.
  
  
  METHODS
  Eighteen obese men participated in the placebo-controlled, randomized, single-blinded, cross-over study with infusion of GLP-1 or saline. Resting metabolic rate (RMR) and substrate oxidations were measured by ventilated hood before and after an energy-fixed breakfast. Gastric emptying was measured using paracetamol as a marker. Visual analogue scales were used to assess appetite sensations, thirst and comfort throughout the experiment and palatability of the test meals. Blood was sampled for analysis of hormones (GLP-1, GLP-2, glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), insulin, glucagon), and substrates (glucose, lactate, non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA), triacylglycerol (TAG)). Ad libitum energy intake at lunch was registered.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Following the breakfast, GLP-1 infusion suppressed ratings of hunger and prospective food consumption (P<0.05), whereas all other subjective ratings and ad libitum energy intake were unaffected. RMR, carbohydrate oxidation and gastric emptying rate were lower during the GLP-1 infusion compared with the saline infusion (P<0.001, P<0.05, P<0.0001, respectively). All plasma hormone and substrate profiles, except NEFA, were significantly reduced by GLP-1 (P<0.0001).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  It is concluded that GLP-1 in physiological concentrations powerfully reduces the rate of entry of nutrients into the circulation by a reduction of gastric emptying rate in obese subjects. The effect of GLP-1 on appetite and food intake may be beneficial in weight reduction.
authors: Research Department of Human Nutrition, Center for Food Research, The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Rolighedsvej 30, DK-1958 Frederiksberg C, Denmark. afl@kvl.dk
authors: A
authors: A
authors: Flint
authors: A
authors: A
authors: Raben
authors: A K
authors: AK
authors: Ersbøll
authors: J J
authors: JJ
authors: Holst
authors: A
authors: A
authors: Astrup
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D001066:Appetite / Q000187:drug effects*; D001481:Basal Metabolism; D015992:Body Mass Index; D004734:Energy Metabolism / Q000187:drug effects*; D005746:Gastric Emptying / Q000187:drug effects*; D005934:Glucagon / Q000097:blood / Q000494:pharmacology*; D052216:Glucagon-Like Peptide 1; D006801:Humans; D007700:Kinetics; D008297:Male; D009765:Obesity / Q000188:drug therapy* / Q000503:physiopathology; D010084:Oxidation-Reduction; D010446:Peptide Fragments / Q000097:blood / Q000494:pharmacology*; D011498:Protein Precursors / Q000097:blood / Q000494:pharmacology*
chemical_list: D010446:Peptide Fragments; D011498:Protein Precursors; D052216:Glucagon-Like Peptide 1; D005934:Glucagon