title: Determinants of glycated haemoglobin in the general population: associations with diet, alcohol and cigarette smoking.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  We evaluated cigarette smoking, alcohol intake and consumption of different foods as determinants of glycated haemoglobin in a general population sample.
  
  
  METHODS
  Cross-sectional survey.
  
  
  METHODS
  England.
  
  
  METHODS
  Representative sample of 15 809 adults aged 16 y and older. Data analysed for 9772 non-diabetic, white European subjects.
  
  
  METHODS
  Glycated haemoglobin (GHb). Analyses were adjusted for age, sex, body mass index (BMI), waist-hip circumference ratio, activity level, and educational attainment.
  
  
  RESULTS
  After adjusting for confounding, GHb was 0.277% (95% confidence interval 0.218 to 0.336) higher in current smokers of 20 or more per day, compared with non-smokers. GHb was 0.189% (0.101 to 0.277) lower in those drinking 42 or more units of alcohol per week than in non-drinkers. GHb was not associated with frequency of consumption of pulses, fruit, vegetables and salads, cakes, bread or confectionery. GHb was higher in subjects who took sugar in tea (0.051%, 0.015 to 0.087%) or in coffee (0.069%, 0.034 to 0.105%). GHb was higher in subjects who used solid fat for cooking (0.082%, 0.022 to 0.142%), or who drank whole rather than reduced-fat milk (0.088%, 0.036 to 0.140%), or used butter or hard margarine rather than low-fat spreads (0.075%, 0.029 to 0.121%).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  In the general population, higher GHb may be associated with cigarette smoking, or frequent consumption of fat-containing foods. Consumption of alcohol may be associated with lower GHb.
  
  
  BACKGROUND
  None.
authors.affiliation: Department of Public Health Sciences, GKT School of Medicine, King's College, London, UK. martin.gulliford@kcl.ac.uk
authors.forename: M C
authors.initials: MC
authors.lastname: Gulliford
authors.forename: O C
authors.initials: OC
authors.lastname: Ukoumunne
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D000369:Aged, 80 and over; D000428:Alcohol Drinking / Q000097:blood*; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D003924:Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2 / Q000097:blood / Q000209:etiology; D004032:Diet; D004034:Diet Surveys; D004041:Dietary Fats / Q000097:blood; D005260:Female; D006442:Glycated Hemoglobin / Q000032:analysis*; D006801:Humans; D007333:Insulin Resistance; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D012907:Smoking / Q000097:blood*
chemical_list: D004041:Dietary Fats; D006442:Glycated Hemoglobin