title: Three-choice discrimination in pigeons is based on relative efficacy differences among opioids.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Drug discrimination assays can provide important information on receptor selectivity and relative efficacy to guide the classification and characterization of opioid agonists.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  A three-choice discrimination was established among high efficacy opioid agonist morphine, low efficacy opioid agonist nalbuphine, and saline to examine the conditions under which differences in relative efficacy might serve as a basis for stimulus control.
  
  
  METHODS
  Seven White Carneau pigeons were trained to discriminate among 5.6 mg/kg nalbuphine, 3.2 mg/kg morphine, and saline under fixed ratio 30 (FR30) schedules of food reinforcement. Substitution and antagonism experiments were then conducted with mu, kappa, and delta opioids and naltrexone, respectively and the percent responding appropriate to the training stimuli was determined.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Low, intermediate, and high doses of morphine produced > or = 80% saline-, > or = 60% nalbuphine-, and > or = 96% morphine-appropriate responding, respectively. Low and high doses of nalbuphine produced > or = 80% saline- and nalbuphine-appropriate responding, respectively. In substitution tests, low doses of fentanyl and etorphine produced partial nalbuphine-appropriate responding (20-60%) and high doses produced > or = 60-80% morphine-appropriate responding. Intermediate doses of buprenorphine and dezocine produced > or = 60-80% nalbuphine-appropriate responding and high doses produced > or = 80% morphine-appropriate responding. The lower efficacy agonists butorphanol, nalorphine, and levallorphan produced > or = 40-80% nalbuphine-appropriate responding. The kappa agonists spiradoline and U50,488 produced approximately > or = 50% nalbuphine-appropriate responding whereas d-amphetamine, saline, and delta agonists BW373U86 and SNC 80 produced > or = 80% saline-appropriate responding. Naltrexone produced > or = 80% saline-appropriate responding and reversed the stimulus effects of morphine and nalbuphine.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The discrimination between morphine and nalbuphine in pigeons is predominantly based on the relative efficacy differences between morphine, a higher-efficacy mu agonist and nalbuphine, a lower-efficacy mu agonist.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA. walkere@aehn2.einstein.edu
authors.forename: E A
authors.initials: EA
authors.lastname: Walker
authors.forename: M J
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Picker
authors.forename: L A
authors.initials: LA
authors.lastname: Dykstra
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D010856:Columbidae; D003216:Conditioning, Operant / Q000187:drug effects; D004193:Discrimination Learning / Q000187:drug effects; D004192:Discrimination, Psychological / Q000187:drug effects*; D004305:Dose-Response Relationship, Drug; D009020:Morphine / Q000494:pharmacology; D009266:Nalbuphine / Q000494:pharmacology; D009292:Narcotic Antagonists / Q000494:pharmacology; D009294:Narcotics / Q000494:pharmacology*; D011957:Receptors, Opioid / Q000187:drug effects; D017473:Receptors, Opioid, kappa / Q000819:agonists; D017480:Receptors, sigma / Q000819:agonists
chemical_list: D009292:Narcotic Antagonists; D009294:Narcotics; D011957:Receptors, Opioid; D017473:Receptors, Opioid, kappa; D017480:Receptors, sigma; D009020:Morphine; D009266:Nalbuphine