title: Ultrafine particles and nitrogen oxides generated by gas and electric cooking.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To measure the concentrations of particles less than 100 nm diameter and of oxides of nitrogen generated by cooking with gas and electricity, to comment on possible hazards to health in poorly ventilated kitchens.
  
  
  METHODS
  Experiments with gas and electric rings, grills, and ovens were used to compare different cooking procedures. Nitrogen oxides (NO(x)) were measured by a chemiluminescent ML9841A NO(x) analyser. A TSI 3934 scanning mobility particle sizer was used to measure average number concentration and size distribution of aerosols in the size range 10-500 nm.
  
  
  RESULTS
  High concentrations of particles are generated by gas combustion, by frying, and by cooking of fatty foods. Electric rings and grills may also generate particles from their surfaces. In experiments where gas burning was the most important source of particles, most particles were in the size range 15-40 nm. When bacon was fried on the gas or electric rings the particles were of larger diameter, in the size range 50-100 nm. The smaller particles generated during experiments grew in size with time because of coagulation. Substantial concentrations of NO(X) were generated during cooking on gas; four rings for 15 minutes produced 5 minute peaks of about 1000 ppb nitrogen dioxide and about 2000 ppb nitric oxide.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Cooking in a poorly ventilated kitchen may give rise to potentially toxic concentrations of numbers of particles. Very high concentrations of oxides of nitrogen may also be generated by gas cooking, and with no extraction and poor ventilation, may reach concentrations at which adverse health effects may be expected. Although respiratory effects of exposure to NO(x) might be anticipated, recent epidemiology suggests that cardiac effects cannot be excluded, and further investigation of this is desirable.
authors.affiliation: Department of Environmental and Occupational Medicine, University of Aberdeen Medical School, Foresterhill, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, Scotland, UK.
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Dennekamp
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Howarth
authors.forename: C A
authors.initials: CA
authors.lastname: Dick
authors.forename: J W
authors.initials: JW
authors.lastname: Cherrie
authors.forename: K
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Donaldson
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Seaton
mesh_terms: D016902:Air Pollution, Indoor / Q000032:analysis* / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D003297:Cooking and Eating Utensils; D004560:Electricity / Q000009:adverse effects; D005511:Food Handling; D005579:Fossil Fuels / Q000009:adverse effects; D006358:Hot Temperature; D006801:Humans; D009589:Nitrogen Oxides / Q000032:analysis*; D010316:Particle Size; D018709:Statistics, Nonparametric
chemical_list: D005579:Fossil Fuels; D009589:Nitrogen Oxides