title: Pharmacodynamic-tolerability relationships of cholinesterase inhibitors for Alzheimer's disease.
abstract: According to the cholinergic hypothesis, the impairment of cognitive function and the behavioural disturbances that affect patients with Alzheimer's disease are mainly due to cortical deficiencies in cholinergic transmission. Numerous cholinesterase inhibitors have been investigated for treatment of this disease, the rationale being to support the cholinergic system by blocking the degradation of acetylcholine released from presynaptic neurons. These drugs can be classified as reversible (tacrine, donepezil and galantamine), pseudo-reversible (physostigmine, eptastigmine and rivastigmine) or irreversible (metrifonate) enzyme inhibitors. This article reviews efficacy and tolerability results from 6-month placebo-controlled studies of 7 cholinesterase inhibitors: tacrine (80 to 160 mg/day), donepezil (5 to 10 mg/day), rivastigmine (1 to 12 mg/day), metrifonate (30 to 80 mg/day), eptastigmine (30 to 60 mg/day), physostigmine (30 to 36 mg/day) and galantamine (8 to 32 mg/day). All these agents have demonstrated a statistically significant, although modest, effect versus placebo on the cognitive and global performance of patients with Alzheimer's disease. Dramatic clinical response has been seen in only 3 to 5% of patients. There are no major differences in terms of efficacy between the different drugs. The mean difference between drug and placebo effects on standardised psychometric scales is about 2 to 4 points on the cognitive subscale of the Alzheimer's Disease Assessment Scale (ADAS-Cog; a 70-point cognitive scale) and 0.2 to 0.5 points on the Clinician's Interview-Based Impression of Change with Caregiver Input (CIBIC-Plus; a 7-point global scale), or 5 to 14% of the average value of the scales. The most common adverse effects observed after administration of cholinesterase inhibitors are nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, dizziness, asthenia and anorexia, all symptoms linked to cholinergic overstimulation. These effects are dose related and largely depend on the degree of cholinesterase inhibition. Also important is the rate of onset of cholinesterase inhibition, which depends on the kinetics of enzyme inhibition, the presence and rate of titration, and the pharmacodynamic peak-to-trough fluctuations. A model predicting the incidence of nausea based on acetylcholinesterase inhibition and the half-life of acetylcholinesterase recovery is proposed. In conclusion, cholinesterase inhibitors are the only pharmacological agents proved to be effective for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease in large, long term, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials. While the efficacy of different cholinesterase inhibitors is similar, their tolerability profiles differ. For example, the incidence of nausea (in excess of that seen with placebo) at cognitively effective dosages ranges from 1% with eptastigmine 60 mg/day to 53% with physostigmine 30 mg/day. Differences in tolerability profile may be due to the extent of peripheral acetylcholinesterase inhibition needed to reach clinical efficacy. Other contributing pharmacodynamic factors are the rate of onset of and fluctuations in acetylcholinesterase inhibition at steady state.
authors.affiliation: Research & Development Department, Chiesi Farmaceutici, Parma, Italy. b.imbimbo@chiesigroup.com
authors.forename: B P
authors.initials: BP
authors.lastname: Imbimbo
mesh_terms: D000544:Alzheimer Disease / Q000188:drug therapy* / Q000201:enzymology* / Q000378:metabolism; D000818:Animals; D002800:Cholinesterase Inhibitors / Q000009:adverse effects* / Q000493:pharmacokinetics / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D004305:Dose-Response Relationship, Drug; D004361:Drug Tolerance; D006801:Humans
chemical_list: D002800:Cholinesterase Inhibitors