title: Endoscopic endonasal approaches to the cavernous sinus: surgical approaches.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  After completion of an earlier endoscopic transsphenoidal anatomic study, we studied various endoscopic transsphenoidal approaches using cadaveric specimens to develop endoscopic endonasal surgical approaches to the cavernous sinus.
  
  
  METHODS
  Ten cavernous sinuses in five artery-injected adult cadaveric heads were studied with 0-, 30-, and 70-degree angled 4-mm rod-lens endoscopes. The extent of the surgical exposure, the skewed endoscopic anatomic view, and the maneuverability of surgical instruments through their relative operating spaces were studied after various endoscopic endonasal approaches via one nostril.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The paraseptal approach was used between the nasal septum and the middle turbinate and provided exposure at the anteromedial portion of the cavernous sinus. The contralateral paraseptal approach rendered a slightly more medial view at the cavernous sinus than did the ipsilateral approach. This approach offered limited surgical access to the lateral vertical compartment. The middle turbinectomy approach allowed surgical access to the lateral wall of the cavernous sinus, except for the superior orbital fissure and the orbital apex. The middle meatal approach, which was made between the middle turbinate and the lateral nasal wall, revealed the entire lateral vertical compartment of the cavernous sinus, including the orbital apex and the superior orbital fissure. However, its lateral tangential surgical trajectory and the absence of dedicated surgical tools limited the surgeon's surgical maneuverability. A combination of the middle turbinectomy and middle meatal approaches increased the operating space.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Various endoscopic endonasal surgical approaches to the cavernous sinus were studied using adult cadaveric head specimens.
authors.affiliation: Department of Neurosurgery, Federico II University of Naples School of Medicine, Italy.
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Alfieri
authors.forename: H D
authors.initials: HD
authors.lastname: Jho
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D002102:Cadaver; D002426:Cavernous Sinus / Q000601:surgery*; D004724:Endoscopy; D006801:Humans; D009296:Nasal Cavity / Q000601:surgery; D019635:Neurosurgical Procedures