title: Relationship between dietary intake, antioxidant status and smoking habits in female Austrian smokers.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Previous studies have shown that cigarette smoke contains many oxidants and free radicals, which can increase lipid peroxidation.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  The association between smoking, food pattern, especially vitamin intake and plasma concentrations of important antioxidants, as well as lipid peroxidation products was assessed in this cross-sectional study.
  
  
  METHODS
  Sixty Austrian women aged 18-40 y were enrolled in the study. Twenty-nine women were allocated to the smoking group; thirty-one women served as nonsmoking controls. Plasma concentrations of alpha- and gamma-tocopherol, alpha- and beta-carotene, lycopene, cryptoxanthin, retinol, ascorbate and malondialdehyde were determined by HPLC; dietary intake and food pattern had been assessed by four 24-h dietary intake recalls and one food frequency questionnaire.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Generally, food intake patterns were not different between smoking and nonsmoking women. But, a significantly higher intake of alcohol was observed in the smoking group (P < 0.05). Plasma ascorbic acid concentration of the smoking group did not differ from the nonsmoking women. Despite the increased utilization because of the oxidative stress in smokers, this result might be explained by the high dietary intake of vitamin C in our smoking group. Significantly lower plasma concentrations of alpha-,beta-carotene and lycopene have been partly ascribed to the enhanced metabolic turnover resulting from smoking-induced oxidative stress. Our results confirm that smoking had no effects on plasma tocopherol and plasma retinol concentrations.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The poor supply with the carotenoids alpha-, beta-carotene and lycopene may result from the increased metabolism of antioxidants caused by oxidative stress and may be responsible for significantly higher levels of lipid peroxidation products in smokers compared to nonsmokers (P < 0.05).
authors.affiliation: Institute of Nutritional Sciences, Vienna, Austria. petra.rust@univie.ac.at
authors.forename: P
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Rust
authors.forename: P
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Lehner
authors.forename: I
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Elmadfa
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000428:Alcohol Drinking / Q000009:adverse effects; D000975:Antioxidants / Q000378:metabolism*; D001317:Austria; D016022:Case-Control Studies; D002851:Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D004032:Diet; D002149:Energy Intake; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D015227:Lipid Peroxidation / Q000187:drug effects; D011939:Mental Recall; D010084:Oxidation-Reduction; D018384:Oxidative Stress / Q000502:physiology; D012907:Smoking / Q000009:adverse effects*; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D014815:Vitamins / Q000008:administration & dosage* / Q000097:blood
chemical_list: D000975:Antioxidants; D014815:Vitamins