title: Oral contraceptive use and hormone replacement therapy are associated with microalbuminuria.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Controversy exists regarding the adverse and beneficial effects of oral contraceptive use and hormone replacement therapy. Microalbuminuria is associated with increased risk of renal and cardiovascular disease.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To examine the association between oral contraceptive use or hormone replacement therapy and microalbuminuria.
  
  
  METHODS
  We performed a case-control study of the baseline data and historical pharmacy data of 4301 female subjects of the Prevention of Renal and Vascular End Stage Disease study cohort, aged 28 to 75 years, excluding women who were pregnant or had type 1 diabetes mellitus. The main outcome measure was microalbuminuria, defined as a urinary albumin excretion of 30 to 300 mg per 24 hours (recorded as the mean of two 24-hour urine collections).
  
  
  RESULTS
  After adjusting for age, hypertension, diabetes, obesity, hyperlipidemia, and smoking, the odds ratio (OR) for having microalbuminuria was 1.90 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.23-2.93) for premenopausal oral contraceptive users and 2.05 (95% CI, 1.12-3.77) for postmenopausal hormone replacement therapy users. The point estimate increased in a dose-dependent fashion, albeit insignificantly, according to the estrogen content of the oral contraceptives (<30 microg ethinyl estradiol: OR, 1.11; 95% CI, 0.14-8.56; 30 to <50 microg: OR, 1.83; 95% CI, 1.17-2.87; and 50 microg: OR, 2.72; 95% CI, 0.81-9.08). The OR was greater in oral contraceptives with a second-generation (OR, 2.04; 95% CI, 1.28-3.25) vs a third-generation progestin (OR, 1.39; 95% CI, 0.63-3.06). The OR increased with the duration of hormone replacement therapy (< or =5 years, OR, 1.28; 95% CI, 0.37-4.50; >5 years, OR, 2.56; 95% CI, 1.32-4.97).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Regular and long-term oral contraceptive use and hormone replacement therapy are associated with an increased risk for microalbuminuria and cardiovascular disease.
authors.affiliation: Department of Social Pharmacy and Pharmacoepidemiology, Groningen University Institute for Drug Exploration, University of Groningen, A Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV Groningen, the Netherlands. L.T.W.de.Jong-van.den.Berg@farm.rug.nl
authors.forename: T B
authors.initials: TB
authors.lastname: Monster
authors.forename: W M
authors.initials: WM
authors.lastname: Janssen
authors.forename: P E
authors.initials: PE
authors.lastname: de Jong
authors.forename: L T
authors.initials: LT
authors.lastname: de Jong-van den Berg
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D000419:Albuminuria / Q000139:chemically induced*; D016022:Case-Control Studies; D003276:Contraceptives, Oral / Q000009:adverse effects*; D015914:Estrogen Replacement Therapy / Q000009:adverse effects*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008875:Middle Aged; D016017:Odds Ratio; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires
chemical_list: D003276:Contraceptives, Oral