title: Clock drawing: analysis in a retirement community.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To test the hypothesis that performance on a clock-drawing test in a mailed survey to an older cohort is associated with known and potential risk and protective factors for Alzheimer's disease.
  
  
  METHODS
  The Leisure World Cohort Study is an ongoing study, begun in 1981, of nearly 14,000 older adults. In November 1992, the 8,406 living cohort members were mailed a follow-up questionnaire.
  
  
  METHODS
  Leisure World Laguna Hills, a southern California retirement community.
  
  
  METHODS
  The study population is a predominantly white, well-educated, upper-middle-class community; approximately two-thirds are women. Data from 4,843 cohort members (mean age 80 years; range 52-101) were analyzed.
  
  
  METHODS
  The questionnaire included a clock-drawing task: a predrawn circle 3 1/4 inches (8.3 cm) in diameter was provided with instructions "In the circle below, draw in the numbers as on a clock face. Make no erasures." Clocks were scored on 7 items: all numbers 1-12 present without adding extra or omitting numbers, sequencing of numbers, position of numbers, orientation of numbers to circle, consistent number style (either Arabic or Roman), tilt of numbers, and superfluous marks. A total clock score was calculated by summing the number of correct individual items (0-7). We also classified individuals as cognitively impaired by a previously suggested method: individuals were affected if they did not have three numbers drawn in the upper left quadrant of the clock face.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Ninety percent or more of the participants across all ages placed the numbers 1 to 12 on their clocks without omissions or additions; 35% completed the clock drawing without error. The mean total clock scores decreased with each successive 5-year age group in both men and women. Regression analysis indicated a significant effect for age (b = -0.15, P <.0001), education (b = 0.05, P =.0001), smoking (b = 0.13, P =.03), and female gender (b = -0.05, P =.05) and a marginally significant effect of nonrheumatoid arthritis (b = 0.05, P =.07) on total clock score. No other measured variable had a significant effect. Cognitively impaired individuals were more likely to be female and older. After adjusting for age and gender, they were also more likely to be hypertensive and to have taken blood pressure medication and less likely to be college graduates, have glaucoma or arthritis, and to have taken vitamin supplements.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The clock-drawing task is an appealing measure of cognitive function for large epidemiological studies because it is a simple, self-administered test that is easily adapted to mail surveys and correlates with more-detailed and more-time-consuming cognitive screens. Although it is relatively free of influence by language, cultural, or ethnic factors, our study shows that even in a highly educated population, clock drawing is influenced by educational level and other known risk factors for Alzheimer's disease. Thus a clock-drawing task may help predict cognitive frailty and future disability in older people. Such determination can direct high-risk individuals to earlier diagnosis, potential therapies, and better management.
authors.affiliation: Department of Preventive Medicine, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA.
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Paganini-Hill
authors.forename: L J
authors.initials: LJ
authors.lastname: Clark
authors.forename: V W
authors.initials: VW
authors.lastname: Henderson
authors.forename: S J
authors.initials: SJ
authors.lastname: Birge
mesh_terms: D017677:Age Distribution; D000368:Aged; D000369:Aged, 80 and over; D000544:Alzheimer Disease / Q000145:classification / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000209:etiology* / Q000517:prevention & control; D000894:Anti-Inflammatory Agents, Non-Steroidal / Q000009:adverse effects; D003072:Cognition Disorders / Q000145:classification / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000209:etiology* / Q000517:prevention & control; D003863:Depression / Q000150:complications; D004522:Educational Status; D005260:Female; D005500:Follow-Up Studies; D015577:Geriatric Assessment; D016852:Housing for the Elderly; D006801:Humans; D006973:Hypertension / Q000150:complications / Q000188:drug therapy; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D009483:Neuropsychological Tests / Q000592:standards*; D012044:Regression Analysis; D012307:Risk Factors; D012680:Sensitivity and Specificity; D017678:Sex Distribution; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires
chemical_list: D000894:Anti-Inflammatory Agents, Non-Steroidal