title: The carbon budget in the outer solar nebula.
abstract: Detailed models of the internal structures of Pluto and Charon, assuming rock and water ice as the only constituents, indicate that the mean silicate mass fraction of this two-body system is on the order of 0.7; thus the Pluto/Charon system is significantly "rockier" than the satellites of the giant planets (silicate mass fraction approximately 0.55).  This compositional contrast reflects different formation mechanisms:  it is likely that Pluto and Charon formed directly from the solar nebula, while the circumplanetary nebulae that produced the giant planet satellites were derived from envelopes that surrounded the forming giant planets (envelopes in which icy planetesimals dissolved more readily than rocky planetesimals).  Simple cosmic abundance calculations, and the assumption that the Pluto/Charon system formed directly from solar nebula condensates, strongly suggest that the majority of the carbon in the outer solar nebula was in the form of carbon monoxide; these results are consistent with (1) inheritance from the dense molecular clouds in the interstellar medium (where CH4/CO < 10(-2) in the gas phase) and/or (2) of the Lewis and Prinn kinetic inhibition model of solar nebula chemistry.  Theoretical predictions of the C/H enhancements in the atmospheres of the giant planets, when compared to the actual observed enhancements, suggest that 10%, or slightly more, of the carbon in the outer solar nebula was in the form of condensed materials (although the amount of condensed C may have dropped slightly with increasing heliocentric distance).  Strict compositional limits computed for the Pluto/Charon system using the densities of CH4 and CO ices indicate that these pure ices are at best minor components in the interiors of these bodies, and imply that CH4 and CO ices were not the dominant C-bearing solids in the outer nebula.  Clathrate-hydrates could not have appropriated enough CH4 or CO to be the major form of condensed carbon, although such clathrates may be necessary to explain the presence of methane on Pluto after its formation from a CO-rich nebula.  Laboratory studies of carbonaceous chondrites, and spacecraft observations of Comet Halley, strongly suggest that of the remaining possibilities, organic material, rather than elemental carbon, is the most likely candidate for the dominant C-bearing solid in the outer solar nebula.  We conclude that the majority of the carbon in the outer solar nebula was in gaseous CO; 10% to a few tens of percent of the C was in condensed organic materials; and at least a trace amount of carbon was in methane gas.
authors.affiliation: Space Science Division, NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California 94035, USA.
authors.forename: D P
authors.initials: DP
authors.lastname: Simonelli
authors.forename: J B
authors.initials: JB
authors.lastname: Pollack
authors.forename: C P
authors.initials: CP
authors.lastname: McKay
authors.forename: R T
authors.initials: RT
authors.lastname: Reynolds
authors.forename: A L
authors.initials: AL
authors.lastname: Summers
mesh_terms: D002244:Carbon / Q000032:analysis* / Q000737:chemistry; D002248:Carbon Monoxide / Q000032:analysis; D005118:Extraterrestrial Environment; D019015:Geologic Sediments / Q000032:analysis / Q000737:chemistry; D007053:Ice / Q000032:analysis*; D018538:Jupiter; D008697:Methane / Q000032:analysis; D008956:Models, Chemical; D018541:Neptune; D018542:Pluto; D018539:Saturn; D017640:Silicates / Q000032:analysis; D016082:Solar System; D018540:Uranus
chemical_list: D007053:Ice; D017640:Silicates; D002244:Carbon; D002248:Carbon Monoxide; D008697:Methane