title: Germination, growth rates, and electron microscope analysis of tomato seeds flown on the LDEF.
abstract: The purpose of the experiment was to determine cosmic rays long-term effects on living tissue. A batch of tomato seeds were flown in orbit aboard the Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) for almost 6 y. During this time, the seeds received an abundant exposure to cosmic radiation. Upon the return of the LDEF to Earth, the seeds were distributed throughout the United States and 30 foreign countries for analysis. Our university analysis included germination and growth rates as well as scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray analysis of the control as well as space exposed tomato seeds.  In analyzing the seeds under the electron microscope, usual observations were performed on the nutritional and epidermis layer of the seed. These layers appeared to be more porous in the space exposed seeds than on Earth-based control seeds. This unusual characteristic may explain the increases in the space seeds growth pattern. (Several test results showed that the space-exposed seeds germinated sooner than Earth-based seeds. Also, the space-exposed seeds grew at a faster rate.) The porous nutritional region may allow the seeds to receive necessary nutrients and liquids more readily, thus enabling the plant to grow at a faster rate. Roots, leaves and stems were cut into small sections and mounted. After sputter coating the specimens with argon/gold palladium plasma, they were viewed under the electron microscope. Many micrographs were taken. The X-ray analysis displayed possible identifications of calcium, potassium, chlorine, copper, aluminum, silicon, phosphate, carbon, and sometimes sulfur and iron. The highest concentrations were shown in potassium and calcium. As a result of the electron interaction and X-ray production within the open seeds, the traditional layers of the space-exposed seed gave peaks of Mg, P and S, while the Earth seed gave an iron peak, which was not detected in the space-exposed seed because of electron beam positioning difference. The space-exposed seed and the Earth-control seed specimens displayed high concentrations of copper.
authors.affiliation: Department of Physics, Morgan State University, Baltimore, MD 21239, USA.
authors.forename: E C
authors.initials: EC
authors.lastname: Hammond
authors.forename: K
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Bridgers
authors.forename: F D
authors.initials: FD
authors.lastname: Berry
mesh_terms: D003359:Cosmic Radiation; D018525:Germination / Q000502:physiology / Q000528:radiation effects*; D007091:Image Processing, Computer-Assisted; D018551:Solanum lycopersicum / Q000254:growth & development* / Q000528:radiation effects; D008854:Microscopy, Electron; D018515:Plant Leaves / Q000254:growth & development / Q000528:radiation effects; D018517:Plant Roots / Q000254:growth & development / Q000528:radiation effects; D012639:Seeds / Q000254:growth & development / Q000528:radiation effects* / Q000648:ultrastructure*; D013026:Space Flight; D018531:Spacecraft; D014893:Weightlessness