title: Drainage pits in cohesionless materials:  implications for surface of Phobos.
abstract: Viking orbiter images show grooves and chains of pits crossing the surface of Phobos, many of which converge toward the large crater Stickney or its antipode.  Although it has been proposed that the pits and grooves are chains of secondary craters, their morphology and geometric relations suggest that they are the surface traces of fractures in the underlying solid body of Phobos.  Several models have been proposed to explain the pits, of which the most plausible are gas venting and drainage of regolith into open fractures.  the latter mechanism is best supported by the image data and is the mechanism studied in this investigation.  Drainage pits and fissures are modeled experimentally by using two rigid substrate plates placed edge to edge and covered by uniform thicknesses of dry fragmental debris (simulated regolith).  Fracture extension is simulated by drawing the plates apart, allowing drainage of regolith into the newly created void.  A typical drainage experiment begins with a shallow depression on the surface of the regolith, above the open fissure.  Increased drainage causes local drainage pits to form; continued drainage causes the pits to coalesce, forming a cuspate groove.  The resulting experimental patterns of pits and grooves have pronounced similarities to those observed on Phobos.  Characteristics such as lack of raised rims, linearity of grooves and chains of pits, uniform spacing of pits, and progression from discrete pits to cuspate grooves are the same in the experiments and on Phobos.  In contrast, gas-venting pits occur in irregular chains and have raised rims.  These experiments thus indicate that the Phobos grooves and pits formed as drainage structures.  The pit spacing in an experiment is measured at the time that the maximum number of pits forms, prior to groove development.  The average pit spacing is compared to the regolith thickness for each material.  Regression line fits indicate that the average spacing of drainage pits in unconsolidated, noncohesive regolith is nearly equal to the thickness of regolith and appears to gbe independent of the angle of repose, within the resolution of our experiments.  This provides a simple means of estimating regolith thickness where drainage pits are present.  On Phobos, two locations differing by 90 degrees in longitude have average pit spacings that suggest regolith thicknesses of 290 and 300 m, suggesting that large areas of Phobos have a nearly uniform regolith thickness of approximately 300 m.
authors.affiliation: Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, University of Arizona, Tucson, USA.
authors.forename: K C
authors.initials: KC
authors.lastname: Horstman
authors.forename: H J
authors.initials: HJ
authors.lastname: Melosh
mesh_terms: D005118:Extraterrestrial Environment; D019015:Geologic Sediments / Q000032:analysis; D055593:Geological Phenomena; D005844:Geology; D018535:Mars; D008962:Models, Theoretical; D012044:Regression Analysis; D012987:Soil; D013026:Space Flight; D018531:Spacecraft / Q000295:instrumentation
chemical_list: D012987:Soil