title: Impact of smoking status on workplace absenteeism and productivity.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To: evaluate the impact of smoking status on objective productivity and absenteeism measures; evaluate the impact of smoking status on subjective measures of productivity; and assess the correlation between subjective and objective productivity measures.
  
  
  METHODS
  Prospective cohort study in a workplace environment.
  
  
  METHODS
  Approximately 300 employees (100 each of former, current, and never smokers) at a reservation office of a large US airline.
  
  
  METHODS
  Objective productivity and absenteeism data were supplied by the employer. Subjective assessments of productivity were collected using a self report instrument, the Health and Work Questionnaire (HWQ).
  
  
  RESULTS
  Current smokers had significantly greater absenteeism than did never smokers, with former smokers having intermediate values; among former smokers, absenteeism showed a significant decline with years following cessation. Former smokers showed an increase in seven of 10 objective productivity measures as compared to current smokers, with a mean increase of 4.5%. While objective productivity measures for former smokers decreased compared to measures for current smokers during the first year following cessation, values for former smokers were greater than those for current smokers by 1-4 years following cessation. Subjective assessments of "productivity evaluation by others" and "personal life satisfaction" showed significant trends with highest values for never smokers, lowest for current smokers, and intermediate for former smokers.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Workplace productivity is increased and absenteeism is decreased among former smokers as compared to current smokers. Productivity among former smokers increases over time toward values seen among never smokers. Subjective measures of productivity provide indications of novel ways of productivity assessment that are sensitive to smoking status.
authors.affiliation: Charles River Associates, Washington DC 2004, USA. mhalpern@crai.com
authors.forename: M T
authors.initials: MT
authors.lastname: Halpern
authors.forename: R
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Shikiar
authors.forename: A M
authors.initials: AM
authors.lastname: Rentz
authors.forename: Z M
authors.initials: ZM
authors.lastname: Khan
mesh_terms: D000041:Absenteeism; D000328:Adult; D000704:Analysis of Variance; D001359:Aviation; D004526:Efficiency; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D011446:Prospective Studies; D012907:Smoking / Q000009:adverse effects* / Q000191:economics; D016540:Smoking Cessation / Q000191:economics; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D014481:United States; D017132:Workplace / Q000706:statistics & numerical data