Catastrophic shifts in ecosystems.
All ecosystems are exposed to gradual changes in climate, nutrient loading, habitat fragmentation or biotic exploitation. Nature is usually assumed to respond to gradual change in a smooth way. However, studies on lakes, coral reefs, oceans, forests and arid lands have shown that smooth change can be interrupted by sudden drastic switches to a contrasting state. Although diverse events can trigger such shifts, recent studies show that a loss of resilience usually paves the way for a switch to an alternative state. This suggests that strategies for sustainable management of such ecosystems should focus on maintaining resilience.
Scheffer
M
M
Department of Aquatic Ecology and Water Quality Management, Wageningen University, PO Box 8080, NL-6700 DD Wageningen, The Netherlands. marten.scheffer@aqec.wkao.wau.nl
Carpenter
S
S
Foley
J A
JA
Folke
C
C
Walker
B
B
D000818:Animals; D003063:Cnidaria; D003247:Conservation of Natural Resources; D003889:Desert Climate; D017753:Ecosystem; D005618:Fresh Water; D008954:Models, Biological; D009792:Oceans and Seas; D013269:Stochastic Processes; D014197:Trees