title: Real-time quantification and display of skin radiation during coronary angiography and intervention.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Radiographically guided investigations may be associated with excessive radiation exposure, which may cause skin injuries. The purpose of this study was to develop and test a system that measures in real time the dose applied to each 1-cm(2) area of skin, taking into account the movement of the x-ray source and changes in the beam characteristics. The goal of such a system is to help prevent high doses that might cause skin injury.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The entrance point, beam size, and dose at the skin of the patient were calculated by use of the geometrical settings of gantry, investigation table, and x-ray beam and an ionization chamber. The data are displayed graphically. Three hundred twenty-two sequential cardiac investigations in adult patients were analyzed. The mean peak entrance dose per investigation was 0.475 Gy to a mean skin area of 8.2 cm(2). The cumulative KERMA-area product per investigation was 52.2 Gy/cm(2) (25.4 to 99.2 Gy/cm(2)), and the mean entrance beam size at the skin was 49.2 cm(2). Twenty-eight percent of the patients (90/322) received a maximum dose of <1 Gy to a small skin area ( approximately 6 cm(2)), and 13.5% of the patients (42/322) received a maximum dose of >2 Gy.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Monitoring of the dose distribution at the skin will alert the operator to the development of high-dose areas; by use of other gantry settings with nonoverlapping entrance fields, different generator settings, and extra collimation, skin lesion can be avoided.
authors.affiliation: Thoraxcenter, Department of Cardiology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands. denboer@card.azr.nl
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: den Boer
authors.forename: P J
authors.initials: PJ
authors.lastname: de Feijter
authors.forename: P W
authors.initials: PW
authors.lastname: Serruys
authors.forename: J R
authors.initials: JR
authors.lastname: Roelandt
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D003199:Computer Systems / Q000592:standards; D017023:Coronary Angiography / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000379:methods / Q000592:standards*; D005240:Feasibility Studies; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D011829:Radiation Dosage; D011832:Radiation Injuries / Q000517:prevention & control*; D011874:Radiometry / Q000295:instrumentation / Q000379:methods*; D015203:Reproducibility of Results; D012867:Skin / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging / Q000528:radiation effects*; D013997:Time Factors; D014965:X-Rays / Q000009:adverse effects