title: The ever-emerging anti-inflammatories. Have there been any real advances?
abstract: Gastrointestinal (GI) Adverse Drug Reactions (ADRs) from the NSAIDs are a major cause of morbidity and mortality in arthritic patients taking these drugs. The recent much heralded development of COX-2 selective drugs (celecoxib, rofecoxib), the objective of which has been to spare inhibition of the production of COX-1 derived mucosal protective prostaglandins, may have represented an advance in reducing the risk of serious ADRs--ulcers and bleeding--but does not appear to have reduced the incidence of symptomatic side-effects (nausea, vomiting, epigastric pain/heartburn, abdominal discomfort) which are a major reason for withdrawal from NSAID therapy, especially in the long term. The rationale of COX-2 selectivity from these newer drugs is controversial since there may be pharmacokinetic differences from established carboxylate-NSAIDs that accounts for their apparent lower ulcerogenicity. Moreover, concerns have been recently expressed that as COX-2 is important in ulcer healing, control of prostacyclin production and renal function that they may have adverse reactions from these effects. Indeed, recent reports of enhanced risk of congestive heart failure with rofecoxib are of importance and may relate to impaired prostacyclin production. Moreover, there are other therapeutic strategies that have yielded equally low ulcerogenic NSAIDs (e.g. the prodrug, nabumetone; the established COX-2 inhibitory drug, nimesulide) and even the well-established NSAIDs ibuprofen and diclofenac have relatively low upper GI ulcerogenicity and have been used as benchmark standards in comparative trials of the newer "Oxib" drugs (celecoxib, rofecoxib). Much research interest has centred on the nitric oxide-donating NSAIDs (NO-NSAIDs). The rationale for donating NSAIDs being to counteract the vasoconstriction effects of NSAIDs but this has yet to be fully evaluated. It is not certain that this "antidote" approach will be acceptable as there may also be systemic effects of the nitrobutoxyl--or other NO-donors that may have toxicological consequences. Another strategy is the development of mixed COX-5 lipoxygenase (LOX) inhibitors--the progenitors of which were benoxaprofen and BW-755C. The rationale of reducing the potential for lipoxygenase mediated actions in the stomach (e.g. vasoconstriction, leucocyte accumulation). Clearly, the need to develop newer NSAIDs with lower risks of ulcers and bleeding as well as symptomatic ADRs is still representing a major challenge.
authors.affiliation: Biomedical Research Centre and Division of Biomedical Sciences, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield S1 1WB, UK. k.d.rainsford@shu.ac.uk
authors.forename: K D
authors.initials: KD
authors.lastname: Rainsford
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000894:Anti-Inflammatory Agents, Non-Steroidal / Q000009:adverse effects*; D016861:Cyclooxygenase Inhibitors / Q000009:adverse effects; D004064:Digestive System / Q000187:drug effects*; D005753:Gastric Mucosa / Q000187:drug effects / Q000473:pathology; D016481:Helicobacter Infections / Q000473:pathology; D016480:Helicobacter pylori; D006801:Humans; D007413:Intestinal Mucosa / Q000187:drug effects / Q000473:pathology; D020030:Nitric Oxide Donors / Q000009:adverse effects; D013678:Technology, Pharmaceutical / Q000639:trends*
chemical_list: D000894:Anti-Inflammatory Agents, Non-Steroidal; D016861:Cyclooxygenase Inhibitors; D020030:Nitric Oxide Donors