title: Enuresis and encopresis: ten years of progress.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To review the progress made over the past decade with regard to the treatment of enuresis and encopresis, as well as advances in the understanding of etiological mechanisms.
  
  
  METHODS
  Separate computerized literature (English language only) searches of Medline and PsycINFO databases were conducted under the parameter of enuresis and children-adolescents, as well as encopresis and children-adolescents.
  
  
  RESULTS
  There has been a substantial decrease in published research concerning the use of imipramine to treat enuresis compared with the prior two decades, accompanied by a corresponding increase in the number of papers concerning desmopressin acetate (DDAVP), which has become the primary pharmacological treatment. Genetic studies of large pedigrees have further confirmed the importance of heritable factors. With regard to encopresis, the research has focused primarily on pathophysiological factors related to the colon and anal sphincter.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The widespread use of DDAVP has been the primary addition to treatment strategies over the past decade. The bell-and-pad method of conditioning, the only major treatment that has enduring benefit after being withdrawn, is the most cost-effective and appears to be underutilized. Research into etiological mechanisms has focused primarily on the mechanism of action of DDAVP and advances in the understanding of genetic factors. Advances in the treatment and etiological understanding of encopresis have been less impressive.
authors.affiliation: Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA.
authors.forename: E J
authors.initials: EJ
authors.lastname: Mikkelsen
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000929:Antidepressive Agents, Tricyclic / Q000627:therapeutic use; D001521:Behavior Therapy; D002648:Child; D002675:Child, Preschool; D004688:Encopresis / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000209:etiology / Q000628:therapy*; D004775:Enuresis / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000209:etiology / Q000628:therapy*; D006801:Humans
chemical_list: D000929:Antidepressive Agents, Tricyclic