title: Marital fertility control among the Qing nobility: implications for two types of preventive check.
abstract: Demographers, as early as Malthus, have assumed that the preventive checks, delayed marriage and celibacy, were absent in traditional China. In this paper on the Qing (1644-1911) imperial lineage, we demonstrate that, instead, there may have been a different, more 'modern' preventive check: fertility control within marriage. Marital fertility of lineage couples during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries was low to moderate. Such low fertility was the product of three behavioural mechanisms: late starting, early stopping and, most significantly, long  spacing. Couples apparently regulated their fertility according to their economic resources and the sex of their surviving children. Moreover, they did so, we suggest, by regulating their coital frequency. Deliberate fertility control, in other words, was already within the 'calculus of conscious choice' for some Chinese well before this century. the speed of contemporary sinitic fertility transitions may accordingly be attributed to the fact that  they did not require a change in attitudes, only the diffusion of new incentives and effective technologies.
authors.affiliation: University of Hawaii and East-West Center, USA.
authors.forename: W
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Feng
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Lee
authors.forename: C
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Campbell
mesh_terms: D001721:Birth Intervals; D002681:China; D005193:Family Planning Services / Q000266:history*; D005298:Fertility; D049711:History, Modern 1601-