title: Motherhood, milk, and money: infant mortality in pre-industrial Finland.
abstract: This article presents an analysis of the levels, trends and determinants of infant mortality in various regions of Finland between the late seventeenth and early twentieth centuries. Nursing habits were of critical importance as were diet and hygiene. It is suggested that there were differences in the frequency of breastfeeding with the landless being more and the farmers being less likely to breastfeed their children. In areas where cows milk was readily available as a substitute for breast milk other influences on infant mortality were the contamination of drinking water and the water in which feeding utensils were washed. At the end of the eighteenth century, in the south-west of Finland, the introduction of the potato created a suitable food for women and children and lowered the mortality rate of infants aged 3-6 months. By contrast, in the regions where the first solid food given to infants was chewed by the mothers, infant mortality remained high. In the part of Finland adjacent to St Petersburg infant mortality actually increased as local mothers were engaged as wet-nurses by the city's foundling hospital.
authors.affiliation: Cambridge Group for the History of Population and Social Structure, Cambridge, England.
authors.forename: B
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Moring
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001942:Breast Feeding; D002654:Child Care / Q000266:history*; D002664:Child Nutritional Physiological Phenomena; D002675:Child, Preschool; D005387:Finland; D049711:History, Modern 1601-; D006801:Humans; D007223:Infant; D007226:Infant Mortality; D007227:Infant Nutritional Physiological Phenomena; D007231:Infant, Newborn; D008892:Milk / Q000266:history*; D009729:Nursing