title: Live-cell microscopy of single nuclear chromosomes and genome compartments: evaluation of labeling procedure and imaging conditions.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Single chromosomes and genome compartments in nuclei of living mammalian cells can be analyzed microscopically after specific labeling with fluorescent dyes. This is achieved by incorporating fluorescent nucleotides into the chromosomal DNA during replication (Zink et al.: Hum Genet 102:241-251, 1998; Manders et al.: J Cell Biol 144:813-821, 1999; Sadoni et al.: J Cell Biol 146:1211-1226, 1999). We characterized the potential artificial impact of this approach on chromosome structure and dynamics. We also evaluated potential sources of artifacts in corresponding live-cell imaging.
  
  
  METHODS
  The subchromosomal distribution of labeled DNA was analyzed, and the fate of labeled nucleotides within cell nuclei was studied. Cell-cycle parameters were used to analyze cell function after incorporation of fluorescent nucleotides. The influences of phototoxic effects on cell division and morphology were studied.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Fluorescent nucleotides were only incorporated for a restricted time period during S-phase, and a uniform labeling of chromosomal DNA could not be achieved. Fluorescent nucleotides incorporated into the DNA showed no or only mild effects on cell growth. Cell-cycle parameters and cellular morphology were valuable indicators for proper cell function during live-cell imaging.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  There is no indication for a substantial impairment of cellular functions if fluorochromes are covalently linked to chromosomal DNA. The controls we present for proper cell function during the imaging period are of general importance, as appropriate controls for live cell microscopy have not yet been well-defined.
authors.affiliation: LMU München, Institut für Anthropologie und Humangenetik, München, Germany. Dani.Zink@lrz.uni-muenchen.de
authors.forename: C
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Fauth
authors.forename: D
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Zink
mesh_terms: D016477:Artifacts; D002451:Cell Compartmentation; D002455:Cell Division / Q000502:physiology; D002875:Chromosomes / Q000648:ultrastructure*; D003952:Diagnostic Imaging / Q000379:methods; D005456:Fluorescent Dyes / Q000378:metabolism; D016678:Genome; D006367:HeLa Cells; D006801:Humans; D008856:Microscopy, Fluorescence / Q000379:methods; D009447:Neuroblastoma; D009711:Nucleotides / Q000378:metabolism; D016196:S Phase / Q000235:genetics* / Q000502:physiology; D013194:Staining and Labeling / Q000379:methods; D014407:Tumor Cells, Cultured
chemical_list: D005456:Fluorescent Dyes; D009711:Nucleotides