title: Uncertainties in model-based outcome predictions for treatment planning.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Model-based treatment-plan-specific outcome predictions (such as normal tissue complication probability [NTCP] or the relative reduction in salivary function) are typically presented without reference to underlying uncertainties. We provide a method to assess the reliability of treatment-plan-specific dose-volume outcome model predictions.
  
  
  METHODS
  A practical method is proposed for evaluating model prediction based on the original input data together with bootstrap-based estimates of parameter uncertainties. The general framework is applicable to continuous variable predictions (e.g., prediction of long-term salivary function) and dichotomous variable predictions (e.g., tumor control probability [TCP] or NTCP). Using bootstrap resampling, a histogram of the likelihood of alternative parameter values is generated. For a given patient and treatment plan we generate a histogram of alternative model results by computing the model predicted outcome for each parameter set in the bootstrap list. Residual uncertainty ("noise") is accounted for by adding a random component to the computed outcome values. The residual noise distribution is estimated from the original fit between model predictions and patient data.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The method is demonstrated using a continuous-endpoint model to predict long-term salivary function for head-and-neck cancer patients. Histograms represent the probabilities for the level of posttreatment salivary function based on the input clinical data, the salivary function model, and the three-dimensional dose distribution. For some patients there is significant uncertainty in the prediction of xerostomia, whereas for other patients the predictions are expected to be more reliable. In contrast, TCP and NTCP endpoints are dichotomous, and parameter uncertainties should be folded directly into the estimated probabilities, thereby improving the accuracy of the estimates. Using bootstrap parameter estimates, competing treatment plans can be ranked based on the probability that one plan is superior to another. Thus, reliability of plan ranking could also be assessed.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  A comprehensive framework for incorporating uncertainties into treatment-plan-specific outcome predictions is described. Uncertainty histograms for continuous variable endpoint models provide a straightforward method for visual review of the reliability of outcome predictions for each treatment plan.
authors.affiliation: Department of Radiation Oncology, Mallinckrodt Institute of Radiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA. deasy@radonc.wustl.eu
authors.forename: J O
authors.initials: JO
authors.lastname: Deasy
authors.forename: K S
authors.initials: KS
authors.lastname: Chao
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Markman
mesh_terms: D006801:Humans; D009369:Neoplasms / Q000532:radiotherapy*; D011336:Probability; D011880:Radiotherapy Planning, Computer-Assisted