title: Treatment of heart failure in infants and children.
abstract: In its simplest and most succinct definition, heart failure can be defined as an inability of the heart to meet the metabolic demands of the body. Despite the diverse etiologies of heart failure in the pediatric population, the presentation of heart failure represents a common constellation of symptoms, signs, and physical findings. In infants, an inability to maintain growth either secondary to decreased nutritional intake or an increased catabolic state is a hallmark of heart failure. Infants exhibit increased sympathetic tone with excessive diaphoresis and increased heart rate. Physical findings in the infants with congestive heart failure (CHF) include increased work of breathing, tachypnea and hepatomegaly. In older children, in contrast, new onset heart failure may be less overtly symptomatic. Malaise, decrease in the level of daily activity, and weight loss may be present. Symptoms of abdominal pain and nausea and anorexia can be present and sometimes divert attention from the real etiology. Physical findings include rales and peripheral edema. If there is hepatomegaly, there will likely be hepatic tenderness as well. A gallop rhythm and tachycardia are commonly present. The long-term treatment of CHF in children includes digoxin, diuretics and afterload reduction with angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors. Digoxin decreases sympathetic tone and improves growth in infants. Diuretics should be used to relieve symptoms but may not be necessary in all children. ACE inhibitors are increasingly valuable in maintaining cardiac function long term. New uses of medications include the addition of spironalactone (Aldactone, G. D. Searle & Co., Chicago, IL) which, in adults, has been shown to significantly decrease both the death rate from CHF and the need for hospitalization. Beta-Blockers have been used in children in limited studies and may have a role in the treatment of patients with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Surgical treatment, such as partial vectriculectomy, has shown short-term benefit and has been used sparingly in infants.
authors.affiliation: Division of Cardiology, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, 34th and Civic Center Blvd., Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA. Clarkb@Email.CHOP.EDU
authors.forename: B J
authors.initials: BJ
authors.lastname: Clark
mesh_terms: D000319:Adrenergic beta-Antagonists / Q000627:therapeutic use; D000806:Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors / Q000627:therapeutic use; D002648:Child; D004077:Digoxin / Q000627:therapeutic use; D004232:Diuretics / Q000627:therapeutic use; D005260:Female; D006333:Heart Failure / Q000188:drug therapy* / Q000209:etiology / Q000601:surgery; D006801:Humans; D007166:Immunosuppressive Agents / Q000627:therapeutic use; D007223:Infant; D007231:Infant, Newborn; D009205:Myocarditis / Q000150:complications / Q000188:drug therapy; D013148:Spironolactone / Q000627:therapeutic use
chemical_list: D000319:Adrenergic beta-Antagonists; D000806:Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors; D004232:Diuretics; D007166:Immunosuppressive Agents; D013148:Spironolactone; D004077:Digoxin