title: Influence of three-dimensional vision on surgical telemanipulator performance.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Different viewing conditions (two- and three-dimensional National Television Standard Committee [2D-NTSC and 3D-NTSC] and two-dimensional high-definition television [2D-HDTV]) on telemanipulator performance were evaluated.
  
  
  METHODS
  Six taskes were performed by 15 endoscopic surgeons using the daVinci telemanipulation system. Performance time and errors were measured. Encoder data from the system were used for kinematic analysis of motion. A self-evaluation questionnaire regarding performance under various viewing conditions was obtained.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Resolution was better with 2D-HDTV. The estimate of relative distance was not influenced by the different visualization systems. Motor skill tasks were performed faster with binocular vision (3D-NTSC) than with monocular vision (2D-NTSC, 2D-HDTV). For both 2D settings, the deceleration phase of motion was prolonged (p < 0.05 vs 3D). Peak velocity was reduced with 2D-HDTV as compared with 3D-NTSC (p = 0.01). The surgeons tended to favor the 3D system despite their use of 2D systems in their own practice.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Three-dimensional vision enhances telemanipulator performance as compared with a 2D system at the same or higher level of resolution. Because it allows faster and more precise movement, future surgical systems should focus on 3D visualization.
authors.affiliation: Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Stanford University, 300 Pasteur Drive, Stanford, CA 94305, USA. falv@medizin.uni-leipzig.de
authors.forename: V
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Falk
authors.forename: D
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Mintz
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Grünenfelder
authors.forename: J I
authors.initials: JI
authors.lastname: Fann
authors.forename: T A
authors.initials: TA
authors.lastname: Burdon
mesh_terms: D003867:Depth Perception; D019723:Endoscopes; D004724:Endoscopy / Q000379:methods*; D004867:Equipment Design; D006801:Humans; D021621:Imaging, Three-Dimensional; D011597:Psychomotor Performance; D012371:Robotics; D013536:Suture Techniques; D013647:Task Performance and Analysis; D017216:Telemedicine; D013690:Television; D020535:Video-Assisted Surgery