title: The cellular uptake and metabolism of clodronate in RAW 264 macrophages.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Non-nitrogen-containing bisphosphonates, such as clodronate (dichloromethylene bisphosphonate), appear to act as prodrugs, their active form being the AppCp-type analogues of ATP. To further elucidate this, we examined the cellular uptake of clodronate and intracellular accumulation of the metabolite of clodronate (AppCCl2p) in RAW 264 macrophages, the influence of clodronate metabolism on the intracellular ATP concentration, and the time course of clodronate metabolism and the effects of clodronate on cytokine secretion from macrophages.
  
  
  METHODS
  The cellular uptake of clodronate was measured using 14C-labeled clodronate. AppCCl2p was determined in cell extracts by using an ion-pairing HPLC-ESI-MS. The cytokine concentrations in the culture supernatants were measured with time-resolved fluoroimmunoassay. Intracellular ATP concentration was measured with a luminometer using a luciferin-luciferase assay.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Of the clodronate internalized by macrophages in vitro, 30-55% is metabolized to AppCCl2p, which accumulates to high intracellular concentrations during the first 12 h of exposure. This accumulation does not affect the ATP levels in the cells. The time course of metabolite appearance in the cells and the inhibition of cytokine secretion were very similar.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  These results strongly support the idea that clodronate acts as a prodrug, the active form being its intracellular AppCCl2p metabolite.
authors.affiliation: Department of Pharmaceutics, University of Kuopio, Finland. Hannu.Monkkonen@uku.fi
authors.forename: H
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Mönkkönen
authors.forename: M J
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Rogers
authors.forename: N
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Makkonen
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Niva
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Auriola
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Mönkkönen
mesh_terms: D000255:Adenosine Triphosphate / Q000378:metabolism; D018712:Analgesics, Non-Narcotic / Q000378:metabolism* / Q000494:pharmacology; D000818:Animals; D001711:Biotransformation; D002460:Cell Line; D004002:Clodronic Acid / Q000378:metabolism* / Q000494:pharmacology; D016207:Cytokines / Q000378:metabolism; D004339:Drug Compounding; D007700:Kinetics; D008081:Liposomes; D008264:Macrophages / Q000187:drug effects / Q000378:metabolism*; D051379:Mice
chemical_list: D018712:Analgesics, Non-Narcotic; D016207:Cytokines; D008081:Liposomes; D004002:Clodronic Acid; D000255:Adenosine Triphosphate