title: Fat-soluble vitamins in the maternal diet, influence of cod liver oil supplementation and impact of the maternal diet on human milk composition.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To investigate lactating mothers' intake of fat-soluble vitamins in free-living subjects and to what extent cod liver oil supplementation influences the maternal intake in a population with common intake of cod liver oil. The impact of maternal diet on the concentration of fat-soluble vitamins in human milk was studied.
  
  
  METHODS
  Dietary intake of 77 lactating women was investigated by 24-hour diet recalls and breast-milk samples were taken at the same occasions. Breast milk samples were analyzed for fat-soluble vitamins.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The median intakes were 927 microg/day for vitamin A, 5.5 mg/day for vitamin E and 3.3 microg/day for vitamin D. Maternal vitamin A, E and D intakes were higher when the diet was supplemented with cod liver oil. Icelandic breast milk was found to have high contents of vitamin A and E. Only vitamin D was too low in breast milk to meet the recommended intake for infants. Retinylpalmitate in relation to lipids correlated with maternal vitamin A intake (r = 0.23, p < 0.05). The group with cod liver oil supplementation had significantly lower levels of gamma-tocopherol in breast milk (p < 0.01), whereas the supplementation did not affect other fat-soluble vitamins.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The recommended intake of fat-soluble vitamins for lactating women can more easily be met with a cod liver oil supplementation than diet alone. Only vitamin D in human milk cannot meet the recommended intakes for infants, with normal breastfeeding. There is a relationship between the content of vitamins A and E in human milk and the maternal diet.
authors.affiliation: Unit for Nutrition Research, Landspitali-University Hospital, University of Iceland, IS-101 Reykjavik, Iceland.
authors.forename: A S
authors.initials: AS
authors.lastname: Olafsdottir
authors.forename: K H
authors.initials: KH
authors.lastname: Wagner
authors.forename: I
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Thorsdottir
authors.forename: I
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Elmadfa
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D003060:Cod Liver Oil / Q000008:administration & dosage* / Q000378:metabolism; D004032:Diet; D019587:Dietary Supplements; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007055:Iceland; D007223:Infant; D007231:Infant, Newborn; D007774:Lactation / Q000502:physiology*; D011939:Mental Recall; D008895:Milk, Human / Q000737:chemistry* / Q000187:drug effects; D014801:Vitamin A / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000032:analysis; D014807:Vitamin D / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000032:analysis; D014810:Vitamin E / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000032:analysis; D014815:Vitamins / Q000008:administration & dosage* / Q000032:analysis
chemical_list: D014815:Vitamins; D014801:Vitamin A; D014807:Vitamin D; D014810:Vitamin E; D003060:Cod Liver Oil