title: Importance of transducer displacement and tilting on three-dimensional echocardiographic volume assessment using apical or off-axis rotational acquisition: an in vitro study.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The goal of this study was to assess effects of translation (horizontal displacement) and angulation (transducer tilting) on 3-dimensional (3D) echocardiographic volumes of both balloons and human left ventricles after autopsy.
  
  
  METHODS
  Six water-filled (non-) aneurysmatic balloons of 150, 250, and 350 mL and 3 hearts of different sizes and shapes were suspended upright in a water bath. Angulation and/or translation was performed respectively by tilting the transducer with a mechanical arm in a vertical plane relative to the balloon tip or true apex of the hearts and by shifting the water bath in the same vertical plane. For balloon and left ventricular (LV) volume assessment, a 3D conical data set was obtained by TomTec rotational acquisition in combination with a HP Sonos 5500 ultrasound machine.
  
  
  RESULTS
  For the 6 balloons, translation from 1 to 4 cm yielded volumes of up to 74% of the optimal volume (100%); angulation of 10 degrees or 20 degrees, volumes of up to 80% and 34%. Translation with 10-degree angulation yielded volumes up to 64%; for 20-degree angulation and translation, there was no volume loss. Results were similar for the left ventricles.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Even minor angulation or translation of the transducer yields substantial underestimation of the true volume. Off-axis para-apical views, however, defined as angulation of 20 degrees and greater than 0.5 cm translation in this in vitro model, obviate volume underestimation. Such views in patients, if obtainable, may be an attractive alternative for conventional apical 3D acquisition, especially in dilated and aneurysmatic hearts.
authors.affiliation: VU Medical Center, Department of Cardiology, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. hfj.mannaerts@azvu.nl
authors.forename: Herman F J
authors.initials: HF
authors.lastname: Mannaerts
authors.forename: Otto
authors.initials: O
authors.lastname: Kamp
authors.forename: Johannes A
authors.initials: JA
authors.lastname: van der Heide
authors.forename: Gabriel
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Valocik
authors.forename: Cees A
authors.initials: CA
authors.lastname: Visser
mesh_terms: D001185:Artificial Intelligence; D001344:Autopsy; D019560:Echocardiography, Three-Dimensional; D004867:Equipment Design / Q000295:instrumentation; D005548:Foreign-Body Migration; D006322:Heart Aneurysm / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging / Q000473:pathology; D006352:Heart Ventricles / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging / Q000473:pathology; D006801:Humans; D007091:Image Processing, Computer-Assisted; D008955:Models, Cardiovascular; D015588:Observer Variation; D011187:Posture; D014159:Transducers