title: Social inequality, ethnicity and cardiovascular disease.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Epidemiological research on cardiovascular risk factors has led to important advances in prevention science by providing insights that have now resulted in substantial reductions in mortality. This research used the variation in risk among individuals as the guide to causal exposures. Large differentials remain among socio-demographic groups, however, and the causes of these differentials may be distinctly different from those observed at the individual level.
  
  
  METHODS
  Vital statistics and census data from the US and selected regions were used in an ecologic analysis.
  
  
  RESULTS
  In 1996 heart disease mortality in the US varied from 156/100 000 among African-American women to 51/100 000 among Asian women; similar differentials were observed for men. Income equality was correlated with heart disease mortality among the 47 largest US cities (r = -0.4; P = 0.006). Independent of income equality, racial segregation was also associated with risk of death from cardiovascular disease in this sample of cities.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Social processes generate marked differentials in heart disease mortality among demographic groups. In the US, death rates are currently 2-3 times higher among African Americans compared to Asians. Broadly speaking, this variation results from their separate cultural legacies, based on well-recognized lifestyle factors and dietary patterns. Ecological comparisons across cities that share similar lifestyle patterns suggest that income inequality and patterns of racial discrimination are each associated with large variation in mortality in a similar manner. Racism and social inequality can be conceptualized as social causes of excess cardiovascular mortality that may not be measurable at the individual level.
authors.affiliation: Department of Preventive Medicine, Loyola University School of Medicine, 2160 S First Ave., Maywood, IL 60153, USA. rcooper@luc.edu
authors.forename: R S
authors.initials: RS
authors.lastname: Cooper
mesh_terms: D002318:Cardiovascular Diseases / Q000191:economics / Q000208:ethnology* / Q000401:mortality*; D005260:Female; D015438:Health Behavior / Q000208:ethnology; D006801:Humans; D007182:Income / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D008019:Life Style; D008297:Male; D015233:Models, Statistical; D011204:Poverty Areas; D011287:Prejudice; D012111:Residence Characteristics; D012307:Risk Factors; D012923:Social Class; D012959:Socioeconomic Factors; D014481:United States / Q000453:epidemiology; D014504:Urban Health / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*