title: Habitual meal frequency and energy intake regulation in partially temporally isolated men.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Assessment of a possible relationship between habitual as well as manipulated meal frequency, blood glucose pattern, macronutrient- and energy intake (EI), and energy intake regulation in partially temporally isolated men.
  
  
  METHODS
  A partially temporally isolated within-subject design assessing energy intake regulation in spite of intervention. Intervention consisted of manipulating meal frequency by offering iso-energetic (1 MJ) preloads high in fat or carbohydrate (CHO), with the same energy density. We have previously shown that after a high-CHO preload, inter-meal-interval was 1 h, while after a high-fat preload intermeal-interval was 2 h.
  
  
  METHODS
  Twenty healthy young (18-31 y) normal weight (body mass index (BMI): 22.8+/-1.9 kg/m(2)) men.
  
  
  METHODS
  On two separate days, each after a different preload: subsequent subjects' responses to the preload, eg manipulated meal frequency; continuous blood glucose levels and blood glucose patterns: macronutrient composition of food intake; EI; appetite ratings; and taste perception. From controlled 3-day food intake diaries: habitual meal frequency; EI; and macronutrient-intake.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Accuracy of energy intake regulation is expressed as minimizing the difference in energy intake, despite intervention. The difference in 24 h EI on the two test days after the preloads (r(2)=0.56; P<0.001) was a function of habitual meal frequency. Variation in energy intake was primarily explained by habitual meal frequency (r(2)=0.76; P<0.0001). Adding macronutrient composition and number of blood glucose declines to this increased the explained variation to 86 and 96%, respectively. Percentage energy from CHO or from fat explained the variation in habitual meal frequency (r(2)=0.84; P<0.0001). Adding the total number of blood-glucose declines to this increased the explained variation to 88%, and adding average baseline blood glucose levels, sweetness perception and hunger suppression during preload consumption increased the explained variation to 91%. Manipulated meal frequency was related to habitual meal frequency (r(2)=0.86; P<0.0001) and was a function of the number of transient and dynamic blood glucose declines (r(2)=0.74; P<0.0001).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Habitual meal frequency is of greater significance in energy intake regulation in healthy young men than manipulated meal frequency. Healthy young men with a high habitual meal frequency showed lower 24 h EI, and a smaller difference in EI after macronutrient specific preloads, compared to those with a low habitual meal frequency, thus showing a more accurate energy intake regulation. Habitual meal frequency is based upon a cluster of related factors including macronutrient composition of the food, sweetness perception, hunger suppression, blood glucose declines and average baseline blood glucose levels.
authors.affiliation: Department of Human Biology, University of Maastricht, Maastricht, The Netherlands. M.Westerterp@HB.Unimaas.nl
authors.forename: M S
authors.initials: MS
authors.lastname: Westerterp-Plantenga
authors.forename: E M R
authors.initials: EM
authors.lastname: Kovacs
authors.forename: K J
authors.initials: KJ
authors.lastname: Melanson
mesh_terms: D000222:Adaptation, Physiological; D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D001066:Appetite; D001786:Blood Glucose / Q000378:metabolism*; D018592:Cross-Over Studies; D015930:Diet Records; D002149:Energy Intake; D005502:Food; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D012016:Reference Values; D016037:Single-Blind Method; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D013649:Taste; D013997:Time Factors
chemical_list: D001786:Blood Glucose