title: Novel routes of insulin delivery for patients with type 1 or type 2 diabetes.
abstract: Subcutaneous insulin has been used to treat diabetes since the 1920s; however, despite a number of different formulations, intensive insulin therapy with multiple daily injections has not gained widespread clinical acceptance. Attempts to find effective, well-tolerated, nonenteral routes for delivering insulin began in the 1920s, and, over the years, have included ocular, buccal, rectal, vaginal, oral, nasal and uterine delivery systems. Until recently, many researchers believed that insulin delivered noninvasively was associated with too low a bioavailability to offer a realistic clinical approach. However, a growing body of evidence suggests that inhaled insulin is an effective, well-tolerated, noninvasive alternative to subcutaneous regular insulin. Critically, inhaled insulin shows a more physiological insulin profile than that seen with conventional insulin. Further studies are needed to confirm long-term efficacy and pulmonary safety, to compare the different approaches, and to characterize better their relative places in practice. As a result of the recognition of the importance of tighter control of glycaemia and the growing number of patients with type 2 diabetes who receive insulin, inhaled insulin could become an increasingly integral part of managing diabetes.
authors.affiliation: University of Vermont College of Medicine, Burlington 05401, USA. wcefalu@zoo.uvm.edu
authors.forename: W T
authors.initials: WT
authors.lastname: Cefalu
mesh_terms: D000280:Administration, Inhalation; D000281:Administration, Intranasal; D001682:Biological Availability; D001786:Blood Glucose / Q000032:analysis; D003922:Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1 / Q000188:drug therapy*; D003924:Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2 / Q000188:drug therapy*; D006442:Glycated Hemoglobin / Q000032:analysis; D006801:Humans; D007328:Insulin / Q000008:administration & dosage*; D019518:Postprandial Period / Q000502:physiology
chemical_list: D001786:Blood Glucose; D006442:Glycated Hemoglobin; D007328:Insulin