title: Expression of hypoxia-inducible factors in human endometrium and suppression of matrix metalloproteinases under hypoxic conditions do not support a major role for hypoxia in regulating tissue breakdown at menstruation.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Classical studies in monkeys suggested that menstruation results from vasoconstriction, hypoxia and necrosis. The heterodimeric hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) complex is critical in oxygen homeostasis via increased stability of HIF-1alpha/2alpha monomers, and these act as markers of hypoxia. We hypothesized that focal hypoxia in perimenstrual endometrium results in locally increased matrix metalloproteinases (MMP), leading to tissue destruction.
  
  
  METHODS
  HIF-1alpha, HIF-2alpha and HIF-1beta were immunolocalized in cycling endometrium. Endometrial stromal cells were cultured under hypoxic and normoxic conditions and MMP measured by zymography and Western blots.
  
  
  RESULTS
  HIF-1alpha and HIF-2alpha were detected in only some endometrial samples, and not confined to the perimenstrual tissue. Where present, they were primarily cytoplasmic, not nuclear. HIF-1beta was localized in epithelium, leukocytes and some decidual cells. Cultured endometrial stromal cells responded to hypoxia with increased cellular HIF-1alpha and secreted vascular endothelial growth factor. ProMMP-1 and proMMP-3 production was reduced in response to hypoxia regardless of the steroidal milieu (no added steroids, estrogen or estrogen plus progesterone). Active MMP-2 and membrane type 1 MMP but not proMMP-2 or proMMP-9 production were also inhibited by hypoxia.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  These results do not support a role for hypoxia in the focally increased production and activation of MMP observed prior to and during menstruation.
authors.affiliation: Prince Henry's Institute of Medical Research, P.O.Box 5152, Clayton, Victoria 3168, Australia.
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Zhang
authors.forename: L A
authors.initials: LA
authors.lastname: Salamonsen
mesh_terms: D051784:Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Nuclear Translocator; D051792:Basic Helix-Loop-Helix Proteins; D015153:Blotting, Western; D015687:Cell Hypoxia / Q000502:physiology*; D002478:Cells, Cultured; D004268:DNA-Binding Proteins; D004717:Endometrium / Q000166:cytology / Q000378:metabolism*; D016228:Endothelial Growth Factors / Q000378:metabolism; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D051795:Hypoxia-Inducible Factor 1, alpha Subunit; D007150:Immunohistochemistry; D007527:Isoenzymes / Q000378:metabolism; D008222:Lymphokines / Q000378:metabolism; D020782:Matrix Metalloproteinases / Q000378:metabolism*; D053504:Matrix Metalloproteinases, Membrane-Associated; D008598:Menstruation / Q000502:physiology*; D008666:Metalloendopeptidases / Q000378:metabolism; D018336:Receptors, Aryl Hydrocarbon; D017154:Stromal Cells / Q000378:metabolism; D015534:Trans-Activators / Q000378:metabolism*; D014157:Transcription Factors / Q000378:metabolism*; D042461:Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor A; D042442:Vascular Endothelial Growth Factors; D000099162:Endothelial PAS Domain-Containing Protein 1
chemical_list: D051784:Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Nuclear Translocator; D051792:Basic Helix-Loop-Helix Proteins; D004268:DNA-Binding Proteins; D016228:Endothelial Growth Factors; D051795:Hypoxia-Inducible Factor 1, alpha Subunit; D007527:Isoenzymes; D008222:Lymphokines; D020782:Matrix Metalloproteinases; D053504:Matrix Metalloproteinases, Membrane-Associated; D008666:Metalloendopeptidases; D018336:Receptors, Aryl Hydrocarbon; D015534:Trans-Activators; D014157:Transcription Factors; D042461:Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor A; D042442:Vascular Endothelial Growth Factors; D000099162:Endothelial PAS Domain-Containing Protein 1; C497396:ARNT protein, human; C497442:HIF1A protein, human