title: 3-Chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone (MX) and mutagenic activity in Massachusetts drinking water.
abstract: There is limited information on the prevalence of the potent mutagen 3-chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone (MX) in U.S. water supplies. We measured MX concentrations and mutagenic activity in tap water samples from 36 surface water systems throughout Massachusetts. We found MX levels much higher (up to 80 ng/L) than previously reported in the United States. We also evaluated the role of water treatment on mutagenic activity and disinfection by-product formation. After adjusting for other covariates, chloramination and filtration were the most important treatment options for reducing mutagenic activity and disinfection by-product formation. Multiple chlorine application (before and after filtration) was associated with increased mutagenicity. Chlorine dose, pH, and total organic carbon were also associated with mutagenicity, MX, and total trihalomethane (TTHM) concentration. Seasonal variation was evident for MX and mutagenic activity, with higher levels occurring in the spring compared to the fall. In contrast, TTHM concentrations were greater in the fall.
authors.affiliation: Environmental Epidemiology Program, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard School of Public Health, 665 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA. mwright@hsph.harvard.edu
authors.forename: J Michael
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Wright
authors.forename: Joel
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Schwartz
authors.forename: Terttu
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Vartiainen
authors.forename: Jorma
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Mäki-Paakkanen
authors.forename: Larisa
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Altshul
authors.forename: Joseph J
authors.initials: JJ
authors.lastname: Harrington
authors.forename: Douglas W
authors.initials: DW
authors.lastname: Dockery
mesh_terms: D017606:Chlorine Compounds / Q000737:chemistry; D004249:DNA Damage; D004784:Environmental Monitoring; D005374:Filtration; D005663:Furans / Q000009:adverse effects* / Q000032:analysis; D006801:Humans; D006863:Hydrogen-Ion Concentration; D008404:Massachusetts; D009152:Mutagenicity Tests; D009153:Mutagens / Q000009:adverse effects* / Q000032:analysis; D012486:Salmonella typhimurium / Q000187:drug effects / Q000235:genetics; D012621:Seasons; D018508:Water Purification; D014881:Water Supply
chemical_list: D017606:Chlorine Compounds; D005663:Furans; D009153:Mutagens; C054121:3-chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone