title: Opioid dependence treatment, including buprenorphine/naloxone.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To review opioid dependence (OD) and its treatment. Pharmacologic treatments, including the use of buprenorphine/naloxone, are presented. Pharmaceutical care functions for outpatient OD treatment are discussed.
  
  
  METHODS
  Primary and review articles were identified by MEDLINE and HEALTHSTAR searches (from 1966 to November 2000) and through secondary sources. Tertiary sources were also reviewed regarding general concepts of OD and its treatment.
  
  
  METHODS
  Relevant articles were reviewed after identification from published abstracts. Articles were selected based on the objectives for this article. Studies of the treatment of OD with buprenorphine were selected based on the topic (pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, adverse reactions) and study design (randomized, controlled clinical trials in patients with OD with active/placebo comparisons and/or comparisons of active OD treatments). Articles regarding pharmacists' activities in the treatment and prevention of OD were reviewed for the pharmaceutical care section.
  
  
  RESULTS
  OD is considered a medical disorder with costly adverse health outcomes. Although methadone maintenance treatment (MMT) is cost-effective for OD, only about 12% of individuals with OD receive this treatment. Psychological and pharmacologic modalities are used to treat OD, but patients often relapse. Drug therapy includes alpha 2-agonists for withdrawal symptoms, detoxification regimens with or without opioids, opioid antagonists, and opioid replacement including methadone, levomethadyl acetate, and buprenorphine. The Drug Addiction Treatment Act of 1999 allows for office-based opioid replacement therapies. Sublingual buprenorphine with naloxone can be used in this milieu. Buprenorphine with naloxone is currently under new drug application review with the Food and Drug Administration. Clinical research shows buprenorphine to be equal in effectiveness to methadone, but safer in overdose due to its ceiling effect on respiratory depression. It has lower abuse potential and fewer withdrawal symptoms when discontinued. Naloxone is included to decrease diversion and injection of the tablets. Pharmacists in outpatient settings who are familiar with OD have opportunities to provide pharmaceutical care to patients receiving this treatment. Pharmaceutical care functions for OD include ensuring appropriate drug administration, monitoring adverse effects, alleviating withdrawal symptoms, treating intercurrent illnesses, minimizing diversion, and preventing relapse.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  OD is a critical unmet health problem in the US. Buprenorphine combined with naloxone represents an innovative treatment for OD in outpatient settings. This new treatment has advantages over MMT.
authors.affiliation: Veterans Affairs Cooperative Studies Program, Clinical Research Pharmacy Coordinating Center, 2401 Centre, SE, Albuquerque, NM 87106-4180, USA. dwraisch@unm.edu
authors.forename: Dennis W
authors.initials: DW
authors.lastname: Raisch
authors.forename: Carol L
authors.initials: CL
authors.lastname: Fye
authors.forename: Kathy D
authors.initials: KD
authors.lastname: Boardman
authors.forename: Mike R
authors.initials: MR
authors.lastname: Sather
mesh_terms: D000286:Administration, Sublingual; D002047:Buprenorphine / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D002986:Clinical Trials as Topic; D016206:Databases, Bibliographic; D006801:Humans; D009270:Naloxone / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D009292:Narcotic Antagonists / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D009293:Opioid-Related Disorders / Q000188:drug therapy*; D016896:Treatment Outcome
chemical_list: D009292:Narcotic Antagonists; D009270:Naloxone; D002047:Buprenorphine