title: Imaging of 1.0-mm-diameter radiopaque markers with megavoltage X-rays: an improved online imaging system.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To improve an online portal imaging system such that implanted cylindrical gold markers of small diameter (no more than 1.0 mm) can be visualized. These small markers would make the implantation procedure much less traumatic for the patient than the large markers (1.6 mm in diameter), which are usually used today to monitor prostate interfraction motion during radiation therapy.
  
  
  METHODS
  Several changes have been made to a mirror-video based online imaging system to improve image quality. First, the conventional camera tube was replaced by an avalanche-multiplication-based video tube. This new camera tube has very high gain at the target such that the camera noise, which is one of the main causes of image degradation of online portal imaging systems, was overcome and effectively eliminated. Second, the conventional linear-accelerator (linac) target was replaced with a low atomic number (low-Z) target such that more diagnostic X-rays are present in the megavoltage X-ray beam. Third, the copper plate buildup layer for the phosphor screen was replaced by a thin plastic layer for detection of the diagnostic X-ray components in the beam generated by the low-Z target.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Radiopaque fiducial gold markers of different sizes, i.e., 1.0 mm (diameter) x 5 mm (length) and 0.8 mm (diameter) x 3 mm (length), embedded in an Alderson Rando phantom, can be clearly seen on the images acquired with our improved system. These markers could not be seen on images obtained with any commercial system available in our clinic.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This work demonstrates the visibility of small-diameter radiopaque markers with an improved online portal imaging system. These markers can be easily implanted into the prostate and used to monitor the interfraction motion of the prostate.
authors.affiliation: Toronto-Sunnybrook Regional Cancer Centre, Toronto, Canada. pang@phoebus.sunnybrook.utotonto.ca
authors.forename: G
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Pang
authors.forename: D J
authors.initials: DJ
authors.lastname: Beachey
authors.forename: P F
authors.initials: PF
authors.lastname: O'Brien
authors.forename: J A
authors.initials: JA
authors.lastname: Rowlands
mesh_terms: D004867:Equipment Design; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D009068:Movement; D019047:Phantoms, Imaging; D011467:Prostate / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging*; D011471:Prostatic Neoplasms / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging* / Q000532:radiotherapy; D019736:Prostheses and Implants; D011856:Radiographic Image Enhancement / Q000295:instrumentation / Q000379:methods; D011880:Radiotherapy Planning, Computer-Assisted / Q000295:instrumentation* / Q000379:methods; D013679:Technology, Radiologic / Q000295:instrumentation / Q000379:methods