title: Ecstasy (MDMA): are the psychological problems associated with its use reversed by prolonged abstinence?
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Chronic, regular recreational use of ecstasy (MDMA) is associated with psychopathology, elevated behavioural impulsivity and persistent impairment of memory performance.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  The aim of the present study was to investigate which of these sequelae persist after at least 6 months of abstinence from ecstasy.
  
  
  METHODS
  Four groups of participants were compared: 18 current regular recreational ecstasy users, 15 ex-regular ecstasy users who had abstained from using the drug for an average of 2 years, 16 polydrug users who had never taken ecstasy and 15 drug-naive controls.
  
  
  RESULTS
  There were no significant group differences in age, education level, or pre-morbid intelligence and, generally, the use of illicit drugs other than ecstasy was not significantly different among the three drug-using groups. Both current and ex-ecstasy users exhibited elevated psychopathology and behavioural impulsivity compared with polydrug users and drug-naive controls, but current ecstasy users exhibited a broader range of psychopathology than ex-users. Both groups of ecstasy users also exhibited impaired working memory and verbal recall performance compared with drug-naive controls, but only ex-users exhibited impaired verbal recall relative to polydrug users. Regression analysis indicated that psychopathology was primarily predicted by the extent of previous consumption of cannabis rather than ecstasy, whereas the majority of the cognitive deficits were only predicted by the extent of previous ecstasy use.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Selective impairments of neuropsychological performance associated with regular ecstasy use are not reversed by prolonged abstinence. This is consistent with evidence that ecstasy has potent and selective neurotoxic effects on brain serotonergic systems in humans.
authors.affiliation: Centre for Substance Abuse Research, Department of Psychology, University of Wales, Swansea, Wales, UK. mikem@biols.susx.ac.uk
authors.forename: M J
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Morgan
authors.forename: L
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: McFie
authors.forename: H
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Fleetwood
authors.forename: J A
authors.initials: JA
authors.lastname: Robinson
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000704:Analysis of Variance; D003072:Cognition Disorders / Q000139:chemically induced / Q000523:psychology* / Q000628:therapy; D005260:Female; D006213:Hallucinogens / Q000009:adverse effects*; D006801:Humans; D007175:Impulsive Behavior / Q000139:chemically induced / Q000523:psychology* / Q000628:therapy; D016014:Linear Models; D008297:Male; D008569:Memory Disorders / Q000139:chemically induced / Q000523:psychology* / Q000628:therapy; D018817:N-Methyl-3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine / Q000009:adverse effects*; D009483:Neuropsychological Tests / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D018490:Serotonin Agents / Q000009:adverse effects*; D018709:Statistics, Nonparametric; D013375:Substance Withdrawal Syndrome / Q000523:psychology*; D013997:Time Factors
chemical_list: D006213:Hallucinogens; D018490:Serotonin Agents; D018817:N-Methyl-3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine