title: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) behaviour explained by dysfunctioning reinforcement and extinction processes.
abstract: Inattentiveness, overactivity and impulsiveness are presently regarded as the main clinical symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Inattention is, however, a characteristic of most psychiatric disorders. It is argued that the ADHD Inattentive subtype may have heterogeneous origins and be qualitatively different from the ADHD Hyperactive/Impulsive subtype. At the neurobiological level, ADHD symptoms may to a large extent be caused by a dysfunctioning dopamine system: A dysfunctioning meso-limbo-cortical dopamine branch will produce altered reinforcement and extinction processes, on a behavioural level giving rise to deficient sustained attention, hyperactivity, motor and cognitive impulsiveness. A dysfunctioning nigro-striatal dopamine branch will cause 'extrapyramidal' symptoms. Our model disentangles the behaviours usually explained by 'executive functions' into cognitive impulsiveness, motor impulsiveness and deficient motor control. The various dopaminergic branches may not be equally dysfunctional in all individuals with ADHD. Etiologically, dopamine dysfunctioning will probably mainly be genetically determined while sometimes be induced by environmental factors like drugs of abuse or pollutants, which may explain geographical differences in prevalence rates.
authors.affiliation: Department of Physiology, University of Oslo, PO Box 1103 Blindern, N-0317 Oslo, Norway.
authors.forename: Espen Borgå
authors.initials: EB
authors.lastname: Johansen
authors.forename: Heidi
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Aase
authors.forename: Anneke
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Meyer
authors.forename: Terje
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Sagvolden
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001289:Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity / Q000523:psychology*; D001519:Behavior / Q000502:physiology*; D004298:Dopamine / Q000502:physiology; D005108:Extinction, Psychological / Q000502:physiology*; D006801:Humans; D007175:Impulsive Behavior / Q000523:psychology; D012054:Reinforcement, Psychology
chemical_list: D004298:Dopamine