title: Cognitive functioning of long-term heavy cannabis users seeking treatment.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Cognitive impairments are associated with long-term cannabis use, but the parameters of use that contribute to impairments and the nature and endurance of cognitive dysfunction remain uncertain.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To examine the effects of duration of cannabis use on specific areas of cognitive functioning among users seeking treatment for cannabis dependence.
  
  
  METHODS
  Multisite retrospective cross-sectional neuropsychological study conducted in the United States (Seattle, Wash; Farmington, Conn; and Miami, Fla) between 1997 and 2000 among 102 near-daily cannabis users (51 long-term users: mean, 23.9 years of use; 51 shorter-term users: mean, 10.2 years of use) compared with 33 nonuser controls.
  
  
  METHODS
  Measures from 9 standard neuropsychological tests that assessed attention, memory, and executive functioning, and were administered prior to entry to a treatment program and following a median 17-hour abstinence.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Long-term cannabis users performed significantly less well than shorter-term users and controls on tests of memory and attention. On the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test, long-term users recalled significantly fewer words than either shorter-term users (P =.001) or controls (P =.005); there was no difference between shorter-term users and controls. Long-term users showed impaired learning (P =.007), retention (P =.003), and retrieval (P =.002) compared with controls. Both user groups performed poorly on a time estimation task (P<.001 vs controls). Performance measures often correlated significantly with the duration of cannabis use, being worse with increasing years of use, but were unrelated to withdrawal symptoms and persisted after controlling for recent cannabis use and other drug use.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  These results confirm that long-term heavy cannabis users show impairments in memory and attention that endure beyond the period of intoxication and worsen with increasing years of regular cannabis use.
authors.affiliation: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia. n.solowij@unsw.edu.au
authors.forename: Nadia
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Solowij
authors.forename: Robert S
authors.initials: RS
authors.lastname: Stephens
authors.forename: Roger A
authors.initials: RA
authors.lastname: Roffman
authors.forename: Thomas
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Babor
authors.forename: Ronald
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Kadden
authors.forename: Michael
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Miller
authors.forename: Kenneth
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Christiansen
authors.forename: Bonnie
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: McRee
authors.forename: Janice
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Vendetti
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D003072:Cognition Disorders / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology*; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D002189:Marijuana Abuse / Q000150:complications* / Q000534:rehabilitation; D008875:Middle Aged; D009483:Neuropsychological Tests; D012189:Retrospective Studies; D013375:Substance Withdrawal Syndrome; D013997:Time Factors; D016482:Urinalysis