title: A systematic review of cytogenetic studies conducted in human populations exposed to cadmium compounds.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Exposure to cadmium fumes or dusts has been associated with an increased risk of lung cancer and the characterisation of the genotoxic potential of cadmium compounds is, among other possible mechanisms, an important element in the assessment of the carcinogenic hazard of the element. While there is some evidence that in experimental systems, cadmium compounds may exert genotoxic effects, the results of the epidemiological studies having examined cytogenetic endpoints in humans exposed to cadmium appear conflicting. Therefore, a systematic review was undertaken to assess whether a cytogenetic effect of cadmium exposure is supported by the studies with the strongest design.
  
  
  METHODS
  The relevant literature was identified through several databases and assessed with a check-list by two reviewers. Causes of heterogeneity between studies were looked for. Results were extracted and the strength of the evidence was evaluated with causality criteria.
  
  
  RESULTS
  No studies met the criteria for being considered as very convincing. Several factors were identified that could explain contradictory findings (small sample size, selection bias, insufficient characterisation of exposure, lack of consideration of confounders) but their actual impact could not be conclusively assessed with the published information. Importantly, it should be recognised that the absence of a clear mechanism for the cytogenetic action of cadmium compounds did not allow to select the most appropriate endpoint to be examined.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  No clear association between cadmium exposure and cytogenetic endpoint appeared but no definite conclusion can be drawn from the existing studies in humans. Future research efforts should mainly focus on experimental studies to understand how cadmium compounds could produce genotoxic/carcinogenic effects, in order to target the most relevant endpoint to be examined in humans.
authors.affiliation: Industrial Toxicology and Occupational Medicine Unit, School of Public Health, Université Catholique de Louvain, Clos Chapelle-aux-Champs 3054, Brussels, Belgium. violaine.verougstraete@toxi.ucl.ac.be
authors.forename: Violaine
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Verougstraete
authors.forename: Dominique
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Lison
authors.forename: Philippe
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Hotz
mesh_terms: D019187:Cadmium Compounds / Q000633:toxicity*; D002105:Cadmium Poisoning / Q000150:complications / Q000235:genetics*; D002273:Carcinogens; D002869:Chromosome Aberrations / Q000187:drug effects*; D003582:Cytogenetics; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008175:Lung Neoplasms / Q000209:etiology / Q000235:genetics; D008297:Male; D048629:Micronuclei, Chromosome-Defective / Q000187:drug effects; D009784:Occupational Diseases / Q000150:complications / Q000235:genetics*
chemical_list: D019187:Cadmium Compounds; D002273:Carcinogens