title: Knockout mice: a paradigm shift in modern immunology.
abstract: In the past decade, advances in genetic engineering and mouse knockout technology have transformed our understanding of the immune system. In particular, new perspectives on T-cell development, co-stimulation and activation have emerged from the study of single and multiple gene-knockout animals, as well as from conditional knockout and 'knock-in' mutants. Analysis of these animals has clarified important intracellular signalling pathways and has shed light on the regulatory mechanisms that govern normal immune responses and autoimmunity.
authors.affiliation: Amgen Research Institute, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. tmak@oci.utoronto.ca
authors.forename: T W
authors.initials: TW
authors.lastname: Mak
authors.forename: J M
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Penninger
authors.forename: P S
authors.initials: PS
authors.lastname: Ohashi
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D018390:Gene Targeting; D005818:Genetic Engineering; D008213:Lymphocyte Activation; D051379:Mice; D018345:Mice, Knockout / Q000235:genetics / Q000276:immunology*; D018448:Models, Immunological; D015398:Signal Transduction; D013601:T-Lymphocytes / Q000276:immunology