title: Women's health issues and their relationship to periodontitis.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The emergence of sex-specific associations between periodontitis and certain systemic disorders has prompted researchers to investigate the possibility of associations between periodontitis and specific women's health issues. The authors review the potential relationships between periodontitis and hormonal changes and their ramifications in regard to pregnancy outcomes, cardiovascular disease, or CVD, and osteoporosis.
  
  
  METHODS
  Changes in hormone levels, such as those that occur during puberty, pregnancy, menstruation and menopause, as well as those that occur with the use of hormonal supplements, have long been associated with the development of gingivitis. Furthermore, bacterial anaerobes have been found to change during the normal hormonal cycle. In periodontitis, the inflammatory response results in ulceration of the gingivae and the subsequent entry of bacterial cells, bacterial products, peptidoglycan fragments and hydrolytic enzymes into the systemic circulation. The result is a systemic response of increased cytokines and biological mediators, as well as increased levels of serum antibodies.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Some researchers have found that pregnant women with periodontitis were 7.5 times more likely to have a preterm low-birth-weight infant than were control subjects. Other researchers reported that the risk of preterm birth was directly related to the severity of periodontitis. Similarly, researchers have linked periodontitis to CVD. Many studies have indicated that estrogen exerts a protective effect against CVD development, and much evidence suggests that when hormone replacement therapy is administered to postmenopausal women, this effect continues. A relationship between periodontitis and osteoporosis has been established, such that more clinical attachment loss has been noted in osteoporotic people.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The literature suggests that more sex-specific research is essential to determine the strategies needed to prevent and treat adverse pregnancy outcomes, CVD and osteoporosis through hormone modification and periodontitis control.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Dentists must assume greater responsibility for the overall health of their patients, and acquire knowledge of relevant systemic conditions to interact meaningfully with medical colleagues.
authors.affiliation: Department of Periodontics, Case Western Reserve University School of Dentistry, Cleveland, OH 44103-4905, USA.
authors.forename: Charlene B
authors.initials: CB
authors.lastname: Krejci
authors.forename: Nabil F
authors.initials: NF
authors.lastname: Bissada
mesh_terms: D001421:Bacteria, Anaerobic / Q000502:physiology; D001424:Bacterial Infections / Q000503:physiopathology; D002318:Cardiovascular Diseases / Q000209:etiology; D005260:Female; D005891:Gingivitis / Q000209:etiology; D012739:Gonadal Steroid Hormones / Q000502:physiology; D020249:Hormone Replacement Therapy; D006801:Humans; D007231:Infant, Newborn; D007234:Infant, Premature; D008593:Menopause / Q000502:physiology; D008598:Menstruation / Q000502:physiology; D015663:Osteoporosis, Postmenopausal / Q000209:etiology; D017622:Periodontal Attachment Loss / Q000209:etiology; D010518:Periodontitis / Q000209:etiology* / Q000382:microbiology / Q000503:physiopathology; D011247:Pregnancy; D011251:Pregnancy Complications, Infectious / Q000503:physiopathology; D011256:Pregnancy Outcome; D011627:Puberty / Q000502:physiology; D012307:Risk Factors; D012737:Sex Factors; D016387:Women's Health
chemical_list: D012739:Gonadal Steroid Hormones