title: Time-dependent pharmacokinetics and drug metabolism of atovaquone plus proguanil (Malarone) when taken as chemoprophylaxis.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To determine the pharmacokinetic profiles of atovaquone (ATO), proguanil (PROG) and its active metabolite cycloguanil (CYCLO) with respect to possible accumulation and kinetic interaction upon repeated dosing with Malarone.
  
  
  METHODS
  Thirteen healthy volunteers first received a single dose and then after 1 week, repetitive daily doses of Malarone (one tablet) for 13 days. For analysis of plasma drug concentrations, blood samples were collected at regular intervals over 8 days after a single dose and over 12 days after the last day of multiple dosing. Single-dose and steady-state pharmacokinetic parameters were determined for each individual. Genotyping of the gene coding for CYP2C19, a major enzyme catalyzing PROG metabolism, was performed using polymerase chain reaction, and in vitro enzyme kinetic experiments were carried out to study the possible effect of ATO on the catalytic activities of CYP2C19 and 3A4 using fluorometric assays.
  
  
  RESULTS
  For ATO, the ratio of the area under the concentration-time curve (AUC) during the last dose interval to the AUC after the single dose (AUC(0- tau)/AUC(0- infinity)) was found to be 0.90 [95% confidence interval (CI) 0.56, 1.24] indicating absence of undue accumulation. AUC(0- tau), and peak plasma concentration at steady state (C(max,ss)) values were, however, threefold lower than those reported in human immunodeficiency virus-infected subjects after 12 multiple daily doses of 250 mg ATO alone. Four volunteers, with mean CYCLO/PROG AUC(0-tau) of 0.03 (-0.23, 0.09) were classified as poor metaboliser (PM) phenotypes. There was a significant increase in the AUC of PROG at steady state with a PROG AUC(0-tau)/AUC(0-infinity) ratio of 1.38 (1.07, 1.69) in extensive metaboliser (EM) phenotypes. CYCLO/PROG AUC ratios were significantly lower 0.67 (0.54, 0.81) at steady state than that after the first single dose in EM phenotypes. The in vitro kinetic experiments on recombinant enzymes (CYP2C19 and CYP3A4) suggested a possible inhibition of catalytic activity of CYP3A4 by ATO.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  There was no unexpected accumulation of ATO following repeated administrations of the combination. In EM phenotypes, PROG elimination was reduced at steady state. Also, at steady state, either the elimination of CYCLO was increased or its formation clearance decreased the latter possibly by inhibition of CYP3A4 by ATO.
authors.affiliation: Department of Infectious Diseases, Malaria Research Laboratory, L7/03, Karolinska Hospital, Stockholm 17176, Sweden. mitmai@ks.se
authors.forename: Mita M
authors.initials: MM
authors.lastname: Thapar
authors.forename: Michael
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Ashton
authors.forename: Niklas
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Lindegårdh
authors.forename: Yngve
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Bergqvist
authors.forename: Sabina
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Nivelius
authors.forename: Inger
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Johansson
authors.forename: Anders
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Björkman
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000962:Antimalarials / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000097:blood / Q000493:pharmacokinetics*; D053626:Atovaquone; D001682:Biological Availability; D004305:Dose-Response Relationship, Drug; D004338:Drug Combinations; D005260:Female; D005838:Genotype; D006801:Humans; D066298:In Vitro Techniques; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D009285:Naphthoquinones / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000097:blood / Q000493:pharmacokinetics*; D010641:Phenotype; D002727:Proguanil / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000097:blood / Q000493:pharmacokinetics*; D013997:Time Factors; D014227:Triazines / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000097:blood / Q000493:pharmacokinetics*
chemical_list: D000962:Antimalarials; D004338:Drug Combinations; D009285:Naphthoquinones; D014227:Triazines; C109496:atovaquone, proguanil drug combination; C026009:cycloguanil; D002727:Proguanil; D053626:Atovaquone