title: Biomarkers of exposure to heterocyclic amines: approaches to improve the exposure assessment.
abstract: Various methods of exposure assessment, such as questionnaires, sometimes combined with pictures of cooked meat, have been employed in investigations on the relationship between heterocyclic amines (HA) and health effects. However, as the content of heterocyclic amines vary greatly with cooking conditions, it is difficult to obtain an accurate estimate of the exposure. To improve the exposure assessment, the use of biomarkers has been investigated. The metabolism of 2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (MeIQx) and 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP) is well characterised. In humans, the major part of the dose is excreted in urine within 24-48 h following a meal. A few percent is excreted as parent compounds, whereas the major part is metabolites. Urinary level of parent HA reflects only recent exposure. However, the pattern of excreted metabolites might indicate the capacity to activate or detoxify HAs. The excretion of glucuronide conjugates of N-hydroxy-PhIP and N-hydroxy-MeIQx could be a marker for the N-hydroxylation capacity and the dose of the proximate metabolites. Recently, we proposed 5-OH-PhIP as a marker for the ultimate reactive metabolite of PhIP, since it is formed from this compound as a by-product along with the formation of PhIP-DNA adducts. In a search for biomarkers reflecting exposure over some time, blood protein adducts with a longer lifespan have been investigated, and PhIP adducts of serum albumin and haemoglobin from meat-consuming humans were recently reported. Many compounds, like drugs, nicotine and narcotics, bind to melanin in hair and give information on exposure for longer time periods. In mice, PhIP is irreversibly incorporated in a dose-dependent manner into hair, and in humans exposed to an ordinary diet, it was found to vary from <50 to 5000 pg PhIP/g hair. The incorporation is also dependent on the content of eumelanin. The use of PhIP in hair as a biomarker of exposure is promising, but needs validation, using other methods of exposure assessment.
authors.affiliation: Division of Environmental Medicine, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, PO Box 4404 Nydalen, NO-0403, Oslo, Norway. jan.alexander@folkehelsa.no
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Alexander
authors.forename: R
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Reistad
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Hegstad
authors.forename: H
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Frandsen
authors.forename: K
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Ingebrigtsen
authors.forename: J E
authors.initials: JE
authors.lastname: Paulsen
authors.forename: G
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Becher
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D015415:Biomarkers / Q000032:analysis / Q000652:urine; D002273:Carcinogens / Q000378:metabolism* / Q000493:pharmacokinetics; D004305:Dose-Response Relationship, Drug; D004781:Environmental Exposure; D004784:Environmental Monitoring / Q000379:methods; D006197:Hair / Q000737:chemistry / Q000378:metabolism*; D006571:Heterocyclic Compounds; D006801:Humans; D007093:Imidazoles / Q000378:metabolism* / Q000493:pharmacokinetics; D051379:Mice; D011810:Quinoxalines / Q000378:metabolism* / Q000493:pharmacokinetics
chemical_list: D015415:Biomarkers; D002273:Carcinogens; D006571:Heterocyclic Compounds; D007093:Imidazoles; D011810:Quinoxalines; C036990:2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo(4,5-f)quinoxaline; C049584:2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo(4,5-b)pyridine