title: Lessons learned from Shuttle/Mir: psychosocial countermeasures.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  During future long-duration space missions, countermeasures need to be developed to deal with psychosocial issues that might impact negatively on crewmember performance and well-being.
  
  
  METHODS
  In our recently completed NASA-funded study of 5 U.S. astronauts, 8 Russian cosmonauts, and 42 U.S. and 16 Russian mission control personnel who participated in the Shuttle/Mir program, we evaluated a number of important psychosocial issues such as group tension, cohesion, leadership role, and the displacement of negative emotions from crewmembers to people in mission control and from mission control personnel to management.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Based on our findings, which are reviewed, a number of psychosocial countermeasures are suggested to help ameliorate the negative impact of potential psychosocial problems during future manned space missions.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Crewmembers should be selected not only to rule out psychopathology but also to select-in for group compatibility and facility in a common language. Training should include briefings and team building related to a number of psychosocial issues and should involve both crewmembers and mission control personnel. During the mission, both experts on the ground and the crewmembers themselves should be alert to potential interpersonal problems, including the displacement of negative emotions from the crew to the ground. Supportive activities should consist of both individual and interpersonal strategies, including an awareness of changing leisure time needs. Finally, attention should be given to postmission readjustment and to supporting the families on Earth.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Francisco (UCSF), Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, USA. nick21@itsa.ucsf.edu
authors.forename: Nick
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Kanas
authors.forename: Vyacheslav
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Salnitskiy
authors.forename: Ellen M
authors.initials: EM
authors.lastname: Grund
authors.forename: Vadim
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Gushin
authors.forename: Daniel S
authors.initials: DS
authors.lastname: Weiss
authors.forename: Olga
authors.initials: O
authors.lastname: Kozerenko
authors.forename: Alexander
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Sled
authors.forename: Charles R
authors.initials: CR
authors.lastname: Marmar
mesh_terms: D018480:Astronauts / Q000523:psychology*; D003469:Culture; D006126:Group Processes; D007398:Interpersonal Relations; D013026:Space Flight; D014481:United States