title: Comparative environmental assessment of biocides used in antifouling paints.
abstract: In response to increasing scientific evidence on the toxicity and persistence of organotin residues from antifouling paints in the aquatic environment, the use of triorganotin antifouling products was banned on boats of less than 25 m length in many countries during 1987. Alternatives to tributyltin (TBT) paint are mainly copper based coatings containing organic booster biocides to improve the efficacy of the formulation, and have been utilised on small boats for the last 10 years. With policies encouraging a total ban on TBT, it is expected that these biocides will be used to a greater extent in the future. Limited data and information are available on the environmental occurrence, fate, toxicity, and persistence of these biocides, and thus any decisions on policies regulating antifoulants cannot be fully informed. In this study, a multicriteria comparison of alternative biocides, based on a general assessment of available information in the literature, provided support for the use of the precautionary principle with respect to policies on antifouling products. This assessment was validated by a more detailed comparison of four selected biocides and TBT. Results indicate that TCMS pyridine and TCMTB demonstrate environmental characteristics similar to TBT and thus detail risk assessments are needed before their use is permitted. The widespread use of the other biocides should be allowed only after research to fill the gaps in knowledge with respect to their toxicity and persistence in aquatic environments.
authors.affiliation: Department of Environmental Science & Technology, Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, London, UK.
authors.forename: Nikolaos
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Voulvoulis
authors.forename: Mark D
authors.initials: MD
authors.lastname: Scrimshaw
authors.forename: John N
authors.initials: JN
authors.lastname: Lester
mesh_terms: D000814:Aniline Compounds / Q000009:adverse effects* / Q000737:chemistry; D001682:Biological Availability; D004237:Diuron / Q000009:adverse effects* / Q000737:chemistry; D004777:Environment; D006540:Herbicides / Q000009:adverse effects* / Q000737:chemistry; D008962:Models, Theoretical; D008975:Molluscacides / Q000009:adverse effects* / Q000737:chemistry; D010150:Paint; D010571:Pest Control; D018570:Risk Assessment; D012767:Ships
chemical_list: D000814:Aniline Compounds; D006540:Herbicides; D008975:Molluscacides; C016370:dichlofluanid; D004237:Diuron