title: Gaia as a complex adaptive system.
abstract: We define the Gaia system of life and its environment on Earth, review the status of the Gaia theory, introduce potentially relevant concepts from complexity theory, then try to apply them to Gaia. We consider whether Gaia is a complex adaptive system (CAS) in terms of its behaviour and suggest that the system is self-organizing but does not reside in a critical state. Gaia has supported abundant life for most of the last 3.8 Gyr. Large perturbations have occasionally suppressed life but the system has always recovered without losing the capacity for large-scale free energy capture and recycling of essential elements. To illustrate how complexity theory can help us understand the emergence of planetary-scale order, we present a simple cellular automata (CA) model of the imaginary planet Daisyworld. This exhibits emergent self-regulation as a consequence of feedback coupling between life and its environment. Local spatial interaction, which was absent from the original model, can destabilize the system by generating bifurcation regimes. Variation and natural selection tend to remove this instability. With mutation in the model system, it exhibits self-organizing adaptive behaviour in its response to forcing. We close by suggesting how artificial life ('Alife') techniques may enable more comprehensive feasibility tests of Gaia.
authors.affiliation: Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Edinburgh Research Station, Bush Estate, Penicuik, Midlothian EH26 0QB, UK. tlent@ceh.ac.uk
authors.forename: Timothy M
authors.initials: TM
authors.lastname: Lenton
authors.forename: Marcel
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: van Oijen
mesh_terms: D018534:Earth, Planet; D017753:Ecosystem; D004777:Environment; D019419:Evolution, Planetary; D008962:Models, Theoretical