Principles and techniques of blood pressure measurement.
The gold standard for clinical blood pressure measurement continues to be readings taken by a physician using a mercury sphygmomanometer, but this is changing as mercury is gradually being phased out. The oscillometric technique, which primarily detects mean arterial pressure, is increasingly popular for use in electronic devices. Other methods include ultrasound (used mainly to detect systolic pressure) and the finger cuff method of Penaz, which can record beat-to-beat pressure noninvasively from the finger. The preferred location of measurement is the upper arm, but errors may occur because of changes in the position of the arm. Other technical sources of error include inappropriate cuff size and too rapid deflation of the cuff. Clinic readings may be unrepresentative of the patient's true blood pressure because of the white coat effect, which is defined as the difference between the clinic readings and the average daytime blood pressure. Patients with elevated clinic pressure and normal daytime pressure are said to have white coat hypertension. There are three commonly used methods for measuring blood pressure for clinical purposes: clinic readings, self-monitoring by the patient at home, and 24-hour ambulatory readings. Self-monitoring is growing rapidly in popularity and is generally carried out using electronic devices that work on the oscillometric technique. Although standard validation protocols exist, many devices on the market have not been tested for accuracy. Such devices can record blood pressure from the upper arm, wrist, or finger, but the arm is preferred. Twenty-four-hour ambulatory monitoring has been found to be the best predictor of cardiovascular risk in the individual patient and is the only technique that can describe the diurnal rhythm of blood pressure accurately. Ambulatory monitoring is mainly used for diagnosing hypertension, whereas self-monitoring is used for following the response to treatment. Different techniques of blood pressure measurement may be preferred in certain situations. In infants the ultrasound technique is best, whereas in pregnancy and after exercise the diastolic pressure may be hard to measure using the conventional auscultatory method. In obese subjects it is important to use a cuff of the correct size.
Integrative and Behavioral Cardiovascular Health Program, Cardiovascular Institute, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY 10029-6574, USA. Thomaspickering@msnyuhealth.org
Thomas G
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Pickering
D000367:Age Factors; D000368:Aged; D001794:Blood Pressure / Q000502:physiology; D001795:Blood Pressure Determination; D002648:Child; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D006973:Hypertension / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000503:physiopathology; D007223:Infant; D008297:Male; D009765:Obesity / Q000503:physiopathology; D011247:Pregnancy; D012737:Sex Factors