Contribution of dichloroacetate and trichloroacetate to liver tumor induction in mice by trichloroethylene.
Determining the key events in the induction of liver cancer in mice by trichloroethylene (TRI) is important in the determination of how risks from this chemical should be treated at low doses. At least two metabolites can contribute to liver cancer in mice, dichloroacetate (DCA) and trichloroacetate (TCA). TCA is produced from metabolism of TRI at systemic concentrations that can clearly contribute to this response. As a peroxisome proliferator and a species-specific carcinogen, TCA may not be important in the induction of liver cancer in humans at the low doses of TRI encountered in the environment. Because DCA is metabolized much more rapidly than TCA, it has not been possible to directly determine whether it is produced at carcinogenic levels. Unlike TCA, DCA is active as a carcinogen in both mice and rats. Its low-dose effects are not associated with peroxisome proliferation. The present study examines whether biomarkers for DCA and TCA can be used to determine if the liver tumor response to TRI seen in mice is completely attributable to TCA or if other metabolites, such as DCA, are involved. Previous work had shown that DCA produces tumors in mice that display a diffuse immunoreactivity to a c-Jun antibody (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, SC-45), whereas TCA-induced tumors do not stain with this antibody. In the present study, we compared the c-Jun phenotype of tumors induced by DCA or TCA alone to those induced when they are given together in various combinations and to those induced by TRI given in an aqueous vehicle. When given in various combinations, DCA and TCA produced a few tumors that were c-Jun+, many that were c-Jun-, but a number with a mixed phenotype that increased with the relative dose of DCA. Sixteen TRI-induced tumors were c-Jun+, 13 were c-Jun-, and 9 had a mixed phenotype. Mutations of the H-ras protooncogene were also examined in DCA-, TCA-, and TRI-induced tumors. The mutation frequency detected in tumors induced by TCA was significantly different from that observed in TRI-induced tumors (0.44 vs 0.21, p < 0.05), whereas that observed in DCA-induced tumors (0.33) was intermediate between values obtained with TCA and TRI, but not significantly different from TRI. No significant differences were found in the mutation spectra of tumors produced by the three compounds. The presence of mutations in H-ras codon 61 appeared to be a late event, but ras-dependent signaling pathways were activated in all tumors. These data are not consistent with the hypothesis that all liver tumors induced by TRI were produced by TCA.
Bull
Richard J
RJ
Molecular Biosciences Department, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington 99352, USA. dbull@tricity.wsu.edu
Orner
Gayle A
GA
Cheng
Rita S
RS
Stillwell
Lisa
L
Stauber
Anja J
AJ
Sasser
Lyle B
LB
Lingohr
Melissa K
MK
Thrall
Brian D
BD
D000818:Animals; D015153:Blotting, Western; D004273:DNA, Neoplasm / Q000737:chemistry / Q000235:genetics; D003999:Dichloroacetic Acid / Q000633:toxicity*; D004347:Drug Interactions; D016758:Genes, jun / Q000235:genetics; D011905:Genes, ras / Q000235:genetics; D008113:Liver Neoplasms / Q000139:chemically induced* / Q000378:metabolism / Q000473:pathology; D008297:Male; D051379:Mice; D009154:Mutation; D016133:Polymerase Chain Reaction; D011897:Random Allocation; D017422:Sequence Analysis, DNA; D012997:Solvents / Q000633:toxicity; D014238:Trichloroacetic Acid / Q000633:toxicity*; D014241:Trichloroethylene / Q000633:toxicity*
D004273:DNA, Neoplasm; D012997:Solvents; D014241:Trichloroethylene; D014238:Trichloroacetic Acid; D003999:Dichloroacetic Acid