title: Automatic online embolus detection and artifact rejection with the first multifrequency transcranial Doppler.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The goal of this study was to assess the first multifrequency transcranial Doppler system specially developed for online automatic detection of cerebral microemboli.
  
  
  METHODS
  The multifrequency Doppler instrumentation insonates simultaneously with 2.0- and 2.5-MHz frequencies. The detection threshold for embolus detection used in this study was a relative Doppler energy increase of >20 dB. ms, at which point the Doppler power increase was at least 5 dB and lasted >4 ms above the background energy. Four parameters were used in an optimized binary decision tree to recognize emboli: quarter Doppler shift, maximum duration limit, reference gate, and bidirectional enhancement. In in vitro studies, 200 plastic microspheres (80 micro m), 200 gas bubbles (8 to 25 micro m), and 600 artifacts were studied in a pulsatile closed-loop system. In vivo studies were carried out for 1 hour in 15 patients with mechanical heart valves and in 45 patients with carotid stenosis. This gave a total of 60 hours of online automatic monitoring in patients.
  
  
  RESULTS
  All 400 plastic spheres and microbubbles were automatically detected and correctly classified. Of the 600 artifacts, 596 (99.3%) were correctly classified as artifacts, and 4 (0.7%) were incorrectly identified as emboli (kappa=0.992, P<0.001). The experienced observer detected a total of 554 emboli and 800 artifacts in the heart valve (521 emboli, 400 artifacts) and carotid stenosis (33 emboli, 400 artifacts) patients. With multifrequency Doppler, 546 of these emboli (98.6%) and 791 of these artifacts (98.9%) were automatically detected and correctly classified as embolus or artifact (kappa=0.953, P<0.0001).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  We found that multifrequency transcranial Doppler had a relatively high sensitivity and specificity when used to automatically detect cerebral microemboli and reject artifacts online.
authors.affiliation: Department of Medical Engineering, University of Applied Sciences, Ulm, Germany.
authors.forename: Rainer
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Brucher
authors.forename: David
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Russell
mesh_terms: D016477:Artifacts; D002138:Calibration; D016893:Carotid Stenosis / Q000150:complications / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging; D004617:Embolism / Q000145:classification / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000209:etiology; D006350:Heart Valve Prosthesis / Q000009:adverse effects; D006801:Humans; D008863:Microspheres; D020768:Middle Cerebral Artery / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging; D008991:Monitoring, Physiologic / Q000295:instrumentation; D015203:Reproducibility of Results; D012680:Sensitivity and Specificity; D017585:Ultrasonography, Doppler, Transcranial / Q000295:instrumentation / Q000379:methods*