title: Male breast carcinoma.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To review the epidemiology, presentation, diagnosis, molecular genetics, treatment and prognosis of male breast cancer.
  
  
  METHODS
  Articles, written in English or French, selected from the Medline database (1966 to January 2001), corresponding to the key words "male breast cancer," according to the following criteria: covering institutional experience or comparing diagnostic and treatment modalities, and epidemiologic or general reviews.
  
  
  METHODS
  Of 198 articles found 50 fulfilled the review criteria.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Risk factors included advanced age, a positive family history, Jewish origin, black race, excess exposure to female hormones (Klinefelter's syndrome), environmental exposure (irradiation), alcohol, obesity, higher socioeconomic or higher educational status and childlessness. Gynecomastia remains a controversial factor, this term being used for both a histologic reality and a physical finding. Advanced disease is characterized by pain, bloody discharge and skin ulceration. There is no definitive diagnostic algorithm. Experience with male breast mammography is limited, and imaging is less informative for patients under 50 years of age. Fine-needle aspiration tends to overestimate the rate of malignancy. The commonest histologic finding is infiltrating ductal adenocarcinoma. Treatment includes modified radical mastectomy, followed by cyclophosphamide-methotrexate-5-fluorouracil or 5-fluorouracil-Adriamycin-cyclophosphamide chemotherapy for disease of stage II or greater. Radiotherapy does not seem to add any benefit. The disease is highly receptor-positive; however, many patients discontinue tamoxifen due to side effects. The most important prognostic factors are tumour size, lymphatic invasion and axillary node status.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Because of the low incidence of male breast cancer, advances will be obtained mainly with the rapid transfer of newly gained knowledge in female mammary neoplasia. The increased use of adjuvant chemotherapy combined with tamoxifen postoperatively may have a positive impact on survival. Public education should be oriented toward men at higher risk to reduce the interval between appearance of symptoms and consultation. Rigorous data collection will allow for thorough reporting of risk factors and thus the possibility of characterizing the etiology of this disease.
authors.affiliation: Department of Surgery, Université Laval, Quebec City, Que.
authors.forename: Ari-Nareg
authors.initials: AN
authors.lastname: Meguerditchian
authors.forename: Maurice
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Falardeau
authors.forename: Ginette
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Martin
mesh_terms: D000465:Algorithms; D018567:Breast Neoplasms, Male / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000235:genetics / Q000628:therapy; D003131:Combined Modality Therapy; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D015411:Mastectomy, Modified Radical; D008875:Middle Aged; D011379:Prognosis; D012307:Risk Factors