Mercury exposure and early effects: an overview.
OBJECTIVE
This paper was given as a keynote address at the conference on The Assessment of the Effects Due to Low Doses of Inorganic Mercury following Environmental and Occupational Exposures: Human and in vitro Studies on the Specific Mechanisms of Toxicity in Gargnano, Italy, in September 2001.


METHODS
The most relevant literature over the past 40 years has been reviewed, and in particular, the proceedings of the World Health Organisation conferences on the health effects of inorganic and organic mercury exposure have been considered.


RESULTS
In an uncontaminated environment the general population is exposed to mercury vapour from the atmosphere and from dental amalgam, while the diet, mainly from fish, is the principal source for methyl mercury absorption. Mercury vapour release from amalgam fillings increases with chewing, with absorption and uptake by the brain and kidneys. Infants exposed to phenyl mercury from treated diapers and young children ingesting mercurous chloride in teething powders have developed acrodynia (pink disease), and Kawasaki disease and the use of mercurial skin lightening creams has been followed by the development of the nephrotic syndrome. Both mercury compounds and mercury vapour have given rise to contact dermatitis in the general population. Epidemics of mercury poisoning have followed release of mercury into the environment from industrial activity, with uptake of methyl mercury from fish eating in Minamata Bay and uptake of both inorganic and methyl mercury following release of mercury vapour and deposition into waterways from gold recovery procedures in the Amazon basin. The ingestion of wheat and barley seed treated with an alkyl mercury fungicide for sowing, by a largely illiterate population in Iraq, led to a major outbreak of poisoning with a high fatality rate. Following exposure to mercury vapour, the earliest clinically observed adverse effects at urine mercury levels of the order of 30-100 mg/g creatinine, are objectively detectable tremor, psychological disorder and impaired nerve conduction velocity in sensitive subjects, with subjective symptoms of irritability, fatigue and anorexia. At these and at lower levels, proteinuria has also been observed. Both glomerular and tubular damage may occur at exposure levels lower than those giving rise to central nervous system effects. An immunological effect has also been observed in studies on clinically asymptomatic workers with low level exposure.


CONCLUSIONS
As mercury can give rise to allergic and immunotoxic reactions which may be genetically regulated, in the absence of adequate dose-response studies for immunologically sensitive individuals, it has not been possible to set a level for mercury in blood or urine below which mercury related symptoms will not occur.
Environmental Geochemistry Research Group, Department of Environmental Science and Technology, Imperial College of Science, Technology & Medicine, Prince Consort Road, London SW7 2BP, UK.
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Kazantzis
D000170:Acrodynia / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology; D000328:Adult; D000393:Air Pollutants / Q000009:adverse effects; D002617:Chemical Industry; D002648:Child; D002675:Child, Preschool; D003723:Dental Amalgam / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000493:pharmacokinetics; D041381:Diapers, Infant; D004196:Disease Outbreaks; D004342:Drug Hypersensitivity / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology; D004781:Environmental Exposure; D005260:Female; D005506:Food Contamination; D006801:Humans; D007223:Infant; D008297:Male; D008452:Maximum Allowable Concentration; D008628:Mercury / Q000009:adverse effects* / Q000493:pharmacokinetics; D017669:Mercury Compounds / Q000009:adverse effects; D008630:Mercury Poisoning / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology; D020262:Mercury Poisoning, Nervous System / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology; D008767:Methylmercury Compounds / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000493:pharmacokinetics; D008906:Mining; D009369:Neoplasms / Q000139:chemically induced; D009404:Nephrotic Syndrome / Q000139:chemically induced / Q000453:epidemiology; D009784:Occupational Diseases / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology; D016273:Occupational Exposure; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical
D000393:Air Pollutants; D017669:Mercury Compounds; D008767:Methylmercury Compounds; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical; D003723:Dental Amalgam; D008628:Mercury